Ochre Research Articles

Possibility of direct rapid determination of inorganic contaminant elements in paints by LA-ICP-MS method

In this work content of inorganic major and trace elements were directly determined in produced in China, Russia, and Germany household use purpose oil, асгуI, and ochre paint samples using laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectroscopy (LA_ICP_MS) technique. A sample preparation was simple and rapid: an oil and acryl paint droplets were dried on glass substrate for several hours on a hot plate at 60° C and few mg ochre paint powder samples were solidified with pure paraffin wax on the glass substrate. Dried oil and acryl paint droplets were ablated locally, drilling the hole way, while ochre paint powders were ablated using surface rastering method. Contents of inorganic elements were calculated using the NIST 610 glassy standard sample as the reference. Parallel determination results of lead and chromium in oil paint samples by atomic absorption technique correlates with that of by LA_ICP_MS acceptably (correlation coefficient for lead is 0.85 and for chromium is 0.95). Because of sample organic - reference inorganic matrix difference, the measured by the LA_ICP_MS content of each element must be adjusted being multiplied in some quantity, value of which are different for each element. For lead and chromium value of the quantity found correspondingly as 6.4 and 9.3. The average relative standard deviation (RSD) of measured content of the mostly high content elements Ca, Al, Mn, Pb, Sr, S, Mg, Fe, Sb, Na, Co, Si, Zn, Cu, P, Y, K, CI, Ce, and La is less than 10%, the RSD for elements Ti, Cr, Sn, Ba, Zr, Rb lies between 10 and 20%, and the RSD for trace elements Gd, Nb, Sc, V, U. Pr, Ni, Ga, Eu, As, Th B, Mo, Cd, Li lies in interval from 20 to 50 %. High level of concentration 309 - 24300 ppm for lead, 950- 3134 ppm for chromium are detected by LA-ICP-MS method in samples of red, yellow and green color oil paints produced in China and bestselling in Mongolia certain brand products. Up to 1900 ppm alarming high content of arsenic is tovnd in the Chinese origin yellowish red, brown red color ochre paints. As shows our measurements, the LA-ICP-MS method is possible to use as alternative rapid semi-quantitive detection method with acceptable accuracy and precision for basic inorganic additives in oil, acryl and ochre paints using glassy standard sample.

New insights on commemoration of the dead through mortuary and architectural use of pigments at Neolithic \xc7atalh\xf6y\xfck, Turkey

The cultural use of pigments in human societies is associated with ritual activities and the creation of social memory. Neolithic Çatalhöyük (Turkey, 7100–5950 cal BC) provides a unique case study for the exploration of links between pigments in burials, demographic data and colourants in contemporary architectural contexts. This study presents the first combined analysis of funerary and architectural evidence of pigment use in Neolithic Anatolia and discusses the possible social processes underlying the observed statistical patterns. Results reveal that pigments were either applied directly to the deceased or included in the grave as a burial association. The most commonly used pigment was red ochre. Cinnabar was mainly applied to males and blue/green pigment was associated with females. A correlation was found between the number of buried individuals and the number of painted layers in the buildings. Mortuary practices seem to have followed specific selection processes independent of sex and age-at-death of the deceased. This study offers new insights about the social factors involved in pigment use in this community, and contributes to the interpretation of funerary practices in Neolithic Anatolia. Specifically, it suggests that visual expression, ritual performance and symbolic associations were elements of shared long-term socio-cultural practices.

What were the colors of the Parthenon? Investigation of the entablature's cornice blocks

The present study is focused on the investigation of the remaining ancient paint layers of the Parthenon's west cornice blocks. Most ornamental features that referred in the 19th century literature as the cornice blocks' decoration, still survive on the Parthenon. Τhe paint layers were studied by using imaging techniques (Visible induced luminescence and portable digital microscope) in situ along with various techniques in lab (Stereomicroscope, μ-Raman spectroscopy, ATR-FITR spectroscopy and SEM/EDX).The obtained results revealed that the taenia, which is placed at the bottom of the cornices’ facade, was depicted with the mineral conichalcite, providing a vivid green color. Red ochre and egyptian blue were used for the viae and the mutules depiction. The bottom side of the guttae, was also painted with red ochre. Regarding the taenia, placed at the base of the cornice blocks, two blue pigments, azurite and Egyptian blue were used for the meander and chess pattern depiction, respectively. The pattern of meander/chess pattern was placed on a red background (red ochre). Red lead was used for the depiction of the brown-red line borders in the corner ceiling of the NW cornice block and most probably for the depiction of the corner ceiling's background. In microsamples deriving from well preserved areas, beeswax was identified mixed with pigments, serving as the binder of the paint layers (encaustic technique). It is the first time that the presence of beeswax is proven in paint layers of an ancient monument, exposed in an open-air environment. The presence of beeswax is in line with ancient inscriptions, which referred to the encaustic technique for the decoration of ancient monuments.This is the first systematic investigation of the Parthenon’s ancient polychromy and the obtained data are compared with the 19th century sources’ information. The scientific investigation not only confirms or invalidates these data, but also presents new findings.

From Himba indigenous knowledge to engineered Fe2O3 UV-blocking green nanocosmetics

This contribution reports on the physical properties of the natural Namibian red Ochre used by the Himba Community in a form of a formulation, so called Otjize as a skin protective and beauty cream. The morphological and crystallographic studies of this red ochre validated its nano-scaled dominating phase of rhombohedral α-Fe2O3 nanocrystals with an additional hydrolized oxide component in a form of γ-FeOOH. The optical investigations showed that such a red ochre exhibits an exceptional UV filtration and a significant IR reflectivity substantiating its effectiveness as an effective UV-blocking & solar heat IR reflector in support of the low skin cancer rate within the Namibian Himba community. In addition, such nanocrystals exhibited a non-negligible antibacterial response against E. Coli & S. Aurus. This study seems confirming the effectiveness of the indigenous Otjize as an effective skin UV protection cream with a sound antimicrobial efficacy against e-Coli & S-Aurus.

Morphological and Molecular Evidence for Two New Species within Russula Subgenus Brevipes from China

Two new Russula species, R. subbrevipes and R. callainomarginis, from China are described based on morphological and molecular characteristics. Russula subbrevipes has thus far only been found in southwestern China at altitudes of higher than 3400 m and is characterized by a yellow ochre pileal surface, glabrous or tomentose stipe, fruity odor, subglobose to ellipsoid basidiospores, isolated or partially connected warts and pleurocystidia with a cap appendage. Russula callainomarginis is characterized by a cream to white pileus, light turquoise lamellae margin, spongy stipe, light turquoise zone on the top of the stipe, pungent odor, globose to ellipsoid basidiospores and dominant isolated warts. The phylogenetic tree of Russula was constructed with multi-gene sequences, including the internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS), the ribosomal large subunit (nrLSU), the small subunit of the mitochondrial rRNA gene (mtSSU) and the second largest subunit of RNA polymerase II (RPB2). The results show that both R. subbrevipes and R. callainomarginis represent new lineages in Russula subg. Brevipes. Description and illustration of the two new species are presented.

Physico-chemical characterisation of remains from a Bronze Age ochre-burial in Biniadris cave (Menorca, Spain)

Red ochre pigments have been used since ancient times by many different civilisations on different continents. In the paper presented herein, ten manufactured artefacts and biological materials stained with a red pigment found in the Bronze Age burial site of Biniadris Cave (Menorca, Spain) have been characterised throught X-ray fluorescence, X-ray diffraction, Raman and infrared spectroscopy techniques, scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The surface analysis of the bones, hairs and ornaments allowed the chemical composition of the pigment used in the funeral practices and rituals to be unequivocally established as hematite-rich ochre. The finding of a gypsum preparation layer on a sample, below the ochre layer, suggests that it could have been used as a primer before sprinkling with hematite ochre. Given the excellent degree of conservation and the worth of this archaeological record for the study of the symbolic practices in the island of Menorca, these results call for further analyses on a larger set of archaeological artefacts to gain insight into the funeral practices conducted in this cave.

Pigments—Iron-based red, yellow, and brown ochres

Pigments—Iron-based red, yellow, and brown ochres

«МОГИЛЬНИКИ С КРАСНОЙ ОХРОЙ» НА ТЕРРИТОРИИ КАРЕЛИИ: ПРОБЛЕМЫ ПОИСКА И ИНТЕРПРЕТАЦИИ

In the 1960s –1980s,the Stone Age objects called “red ochregraves” were studiedon the territory of Karelia. The peculiarity of these monuments was the almost complete absence of bones due to the high acidity of the soil. Only fragments of two shin bones and a rib bone in burials No. 1, 27, 45 of the Sandermokha cemetery and a frag-ment of a finger phalanx from the Kladovets II parking lot have been preserved. The burials were distinguished by the following features: oval-elongated shape, a small depth of occurrence (10–15 cm), the thickness of the layer of ochre sand is from 8–12 cm to 15–20 cm, the size varies from 0.9×0.4 m to 2×0.55 m, orientation in the countries ofthe world varies greatly; in the layer of the part of the ochre spots and lenses, there are large rolled pebbles or boul-ders; in some ochre spots and lenses,there is no accompanying inventory, in othersit is heterogeneous(there are fragments of Neolithic sperrings or pit-comb pottery, tools and waste from slate, flint, lydit and quartz, as well as calcined animal bones). On the territory of neighboring Finland, about 70 Neolithic and Mesolithic graves in red ochre are known. In 28 of them, fragments of human bones and accompanying equipment were found –amber and slate jewelry, flint arrowheads, which confirms the funerary nature of the monuments. Thus, at present, there is no reason to consider «red ochre graves» as funerary monuments

Using retroReveal as a Complement to DStretch for Enhancing Red Ochre Pictographs

The web-based program retro­Reveal has been used primarily for providing improved visibility of documents with faint text, including stamps, currency, music, and so forth. It has yet to be used to its full potential by archaeologists interested in rock art. The plugin DStretch, used on the ImageJ platform, has been the standard for enhancement of faint red ochre rock art images. We introduce retroReveal as a supplement to photographic investigation through comparison of images from four rock art sites in Alberta, Canada. Processing photographs with the two techniques typically yields comparable results, but often with slight differences. In a few cases, retroReveal makes certain features more apparent than is the case with DStretch; in other instances, the opposite is true. Other positive and negative aspects of the two techniques are discussed. Experiments with black pictographs indicate that retroReveal does not perform satisfactorily with these images. Overall, our results indicate that retroReveal should be added to the toolkit for illuminating painted rock art images.

NELSON RHOLIHLAHLA MANDELA’S GENEALOGICAL BACKGROUND AS DEPICTED IN SELECTED ISIXHOSA POETRY

This paper examines the manner in which some isiXhosa poets depict Nelson Rholihlahla Mandela’s genealogical background. The poetry to be considered includes Sithole’s ‘Imbongi ikhahlela iinkosi zakwaDalindyebo’ and ‘Ndisatsho nangoku’; Mtumane’s ‘Yalal’ ingotya yabaThembu’; Shasha’s ‘UMadiba waseQunu’; Yali-Manisi’s ‘UNkosi Rholihlahla Nelson Mandela’; Mtuze’s ‘Kugqirha Nelson Rholihlahla Mandela’; and Madlebe’s ‘Idelakufa lakwaMadiba’. In discussing Mandela’s genealogical background, the aspects to be attended to in the analysis are; claiming of origin back to a specific forefather, Mandela’s forefathers, the significance of the red ochre, Mandela as idelakufa (one who fears not death) and a leader worth following. All this will be based on the statements made by the isiXhosa poets about this icon. It will also be commented on how the background has contributed to making Mandela the leader the poets depict him to have been. The concepts of background and genealogy will be defined as part of the introductory section of this discourse.

Evaluation of Cardioprotective action of Suvarna gairik (Redochre) in Indian Cobra Envenomation, Aluminium Phosphide Poisoning and Doxorubicin Cardiotoxicity in Albino Rats- A Protocol

Background: Poisoning is major health issue all over the world. Poisoning is one of basic causes for Out Hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA). P-OHCA (Poison induced Out Hospital cardiac arrest) can be prevented by immediate primary management. The agent for poisoning is unknown in most cases, which leads to difficulty deciding the emergency antidote. In Ayurveda Hridyavaranchikitsa (Cardio protection) is one of the treatment modalities mentioned in all types of poisoning as first aid treatment. Suvarna Gairik (Red ochre) is one of drugs mentioned for the cardioprotection. Snake bite and organophosphate poisoning are the threats to life in India. Doxorubicin is commonly used drug for Chemotherapy in malignancies, and its major side effect is cardiotoxicity. Hence these poisonings are included in study.
 Aim and Objective: Evaluation of cardioprotective activity of Suvarna Gairik (Red ochre) in cardiac biomarker like Lactate dehydrogenase, Creatinine phosphokinase, Alkaline transferase, Cardiac Troponins and Survival Time in Indian Cobra Envenomation, Aluminium phosphide poisoning and Doxorubicin cardiotoxicity in Albino Rats.
 Methodology: Animal study is designed. 56 wistar rats will be divided in 7 groups as Vehicle Control Group, Disease control Group -1 Indian Cobra envenomation, Disease control Group -2Aluminium Phosphide poisoning, Disease control Group -3 Inj. Doxorubicin induced cardiotoxicity, Test Group -1 Indian Cobra Envenomation and Suvarna gairik Test Group -2 Aluminium Phosphide poisoning and Suvarna gairik Test control Group 3- Inj. Doxorubicin cardiotoxicity and Suvarna gairik.
 Results: Outcome will be assessed in between groups and among groups.
 Conclusion: Suvarna Gairik (Red ochre) may show statistical significant cardioprotective activity.

Life after death: a physicochemical study of materials used by the ancient Maya in human bone ointments

Ancient Maya believed in life after death. They used to prepare dead bodies during burial ceremonies whose purpose was to celebrate the dead and to help them passing through the way from earthly life to the beyond one. Bodies preparation included coloured scented body ointment application, with a deep symbolic connotation and probably also a conservative purpose. The aim of this research was to characterize pigments and binders used by ancient Maya in the preparation of body ointments used to paint human bones. Emblematic painted bone samples from Xcambó (Maya archaeological site located in the municipality of Dzemul, in the Mexican state of Yucatán) were investigated through a non-destructive and micro-destructive analytical techniques. Results pointed out the presence of two mainly red pigments, i.e. red ochre and cinnabar, as already observed in other Maya painted bones. The new insight of the research is the identification of the organic compounds used as binding media in the ointments: a mixture of vegetable drying oil (probably Chia seed oil) mixed with an aromatic compound (bitumen). This knowledge, together with that obtained in the last decades, is important to reconstruct the cultural habitat and social customs of this pre-Hispanic civilization and transfer them to today’s context.Graphical abstract

«PORTRAIT OF A LADY» OF THE BOICHUCK SCHOOL FROM THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF FINE ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE FUNDS. COMPREHENSIVE EXAMINATION RESULTS

Abstract. The article features the results of the comprehensive examination of an outstanding piece from the Mykhailo Boуchuk school, «Portrait of a Lady» from the NAFAA funds. The research was done by the Associate Professor of the Department of the Technique and Restoration of Artwork of NAFAA, Tetiana Tymchenko, Ph.D, and the Leading Researcher of the Bureau of scientific and technical expertise «ART-LAB» Svitlana Biskulova, Ph.D, in connection with the planned restoration of the artwork. Since 2018, «Portrait of a Lady» has been attributed to Mykola Kasperovych (1885–1938), an outstanding painter, restorer and researcher. The reasoning is provided in the expert conclusion of the Head of the Ukrainian Art Department of the end of 19th — beginning of the 20th century of the National Art Museum of Ukraine Olena Kashuba-Volvach. The article lists the peculiarities of the techniques, technology, condition of the artwork from the NAFAA funds. In particular, it reveals the peculiarities of the preparatory drawing, imitation of the monumental art techniques by means of the easel painting, and individual techniques of working with paints. The paper specifies the time of the portrait creation, which indicates 1923 — probably, the year of the work creation, and the age of the lady from the portrait, 30 years. The technological examination of the portrait in the Bureau of scientific and technical expertise «ART-LAB» confirmed the dating of the work to the period of the 1920s – 1930s. The article clarifies important components of the portrait technology: in particular, it has been found that the ground is chalk-glue and the paints’ medium is casein-oil tempera; among the pigments the zinc white with an admixture of lead white, yellow and red ochre, Ivory black pigment (burnt bone), mixed green pigment (burnt bone and yellow ochre) were identified. The examination revealed the traces of restoration interventions of different times. The paper features a number of considerations regarding further research of Boychukists’ creativity from the point of view of technology.

Conception, construction and the cultural significance of Te Parapara Garden in Hamilton, Aotearoa New Zealand

Te Parapara Garden is the only complete pre-European-style Māori horticultural garden in the world. Historically inspired and empirically researched, it lies within the Hamilton Gardens on a young river terrace immediately adjacent to the Waikato River in Hamilton (Kirikiriroa), Aotearoa New Zealand. In this article, Wiremu Puke (Ngāti Wairere, Ngāti Porou) – a tohunga whakairo (master carver, including using pre-steel tools) and a tohunga whakapapa (genealogical expert on his tribal affiliations) of Ngāti Wairere (the mana whenua, or first people of the traditional ancestral tribal lands of Kirikiriroa) – describes the design and development of Te Parapara Garden from its initial concept in 2003 and the construction of its many features, including the waharoa (gateway), pou (carved pillars), pātaka (storehouse), whatarangi (small storehouse), taeapa (fencing) and rua kūmara (underground storage pit), and the sourcing and use of kōkōwai (red ochre). The garden was completed in 2010. Its ongoing functioning, including the annual planting and harvesting of traditional pre-European kūmara (sweet potato) using modified, mounded soils (puke or ahu), is also covered. The unique Te Parapara Garden is of great cultural importance and a source of pride, knowledge and understanding for national and international visitors and empirical and academic researchers.

Study on Scientific Analysis about Red Pigment And Binder - The Korean Ancient Red Pottery -

From the collection of the National Kimhae Museum, qualitative analyses using microscopic observation, SEM-EDS, Raman spectroscopy, FT-IR-ATR spectroscopy, and GC-MS were conducted on three burnished red potteries—Jeoksaekmaoyeonwa burnished red pottery (Neolithic age red pottery), Dandomaoyeonwan burnished red pottery(Bronze age red pottery) and Jeoksaekmaoyeongajimun burnished red pottery(Bronze age red pottery)—to investigate the components of the red pigments and the binder. After the layers of the primer were separated from the red surface, crystals of red pigment particles and minerals were found on the red surface. Through SEM-EDS, Raman estimates that the red pigment is Among soil pigments with iron oxide(Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) as the main color development source, Red Ocher(Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>). A band characteristic of the Urushiol polymer was detected in the FTIR-ATRspectra(4000∼600cm-1), GC-MS analysis confirmed the presence of the benzenemethanol-2-prophenyl, 4-heptylphenol, 1-tetracecanol, heptafluorobutyric texidecane, all of which are the ingredients of the directional structure of the lacquer present in the red layer. Therefore, it seemed that the three burnished red pottery: Jeoksaekmaoyeonwan pottery(Neolithic age burnished red pottery), Dandomaoyeonwan pottery(bronze age burnished red pottery) and the Jeoksaekmaoyeongajimun pottery(bronze age burnished red pottery) made by mixing minerals and Red Ocher(Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>), with lacquer.

Investigation of Ancient Wall Painting Fragments Discovered in the Roman Baths from Alburnus Maior by Complementary Non-Destructive Techniques

In this study, several wall painting fragments discovered in the Roman baths from the archeological site Alburnus Maior (Roşia Montană, Romania) were analyzed with the aim to investigate the material composition of both plasters and pictorial layers. Dated from the beginning of the second century AD, these rare findings stand among the oldest examples of preserved decorative polychrome paintings on plaster excavated thus far in the former territory of the Roman province of Dacia. A non-destructive multi-analytical approach based on complementary techniques was considered: Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), UV fluorescence, and hyperspectral imaging (HSI). The obtained results highlight a common Roman color palette mainly based on naturally occurring earth pigments. Red ochre, yellow ochre, manganese-rich ochres/wads, carbon black, and calcite were identified. A traditional two-layer sequence of plasters was found—arriccio (based on lime and siliceous sands), and intonaco (pure lime). The presence of an organic protein binder, identified via FTIR analysis, and sustained by combined imaging documentation, indicates that the pigments were applied a secco. The obtained results are discussed in relation to previous published data, and they can be considered as valuable archeological indicators that contribute to the understanding of the painting techniques and the materials used in the Roman provinces.

Analytical characterization of academic nude paintings from the Faculty of Fine Arts of the University of Lisbon

This study illustrates the analytical characterization of 20 academic nude paintings from the collection of the Faculty of Fine Arts of the University of Lisbon, made between 1899 and 1918. The study was performed by combining in situ non-invasive methods (infrared reflectography, radiography, and EDXRF) and laboratory microanalytical techniques (micro-Raman, micro-FTIR, and SEM-EDS). Infrared reflectography revealed underdrawings, underpaintings, painting style, and execution methods. Analytical techniques allowed the identification of painting materials, such as gypsum, lead white, barium white, zinc white, yellow ochre, chrome yellow, zinc yellow, red ochre, vermilion, ultramarine blue, hematite, Mars red, and lamp black. This study provides valuable information on the academic nude paintings’ palette and its artistic production technique. Finally, it intends to continue a systematic analytical study of the Faculty of Fine Arts’ collection, allowing the characterization of Master painters, their students, and other authors.

Preliminary Studies of the Effects of Nanoconsolidants on Mural Paint Layers with a Lack of Cohesion

This paper reports the preliminary results of a comparative analysis of the effects of three consolidants on the color appearance of fresco paint layers affected by lack of cohesion. In vitro assays were performed with a laboratory-synthesized nanolime, a commercial nanolime (CaLoSiL® IP25), and a commercial acrylic resin (PrimalTM SF-016 ER®) applied by nebulization over two sets of replicas of buon and lime fresco painted with red and yellow ochres and smalt pigments. The paint layers were surveyed before, one week, and one month after treatment with technical photography in the visible range (Vis) and ultraviolet-induced fluorescence in the visible range (UVF), as well as optical microscopy (OM-Vis), colorimetry, spectrophotometry, and scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS). Experimental work also comprised the synthesis of nanolime and its characterization by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and thermogravimetry analysis (TGA-DTG). The results show no alteration on pigments’ spectral curves and elemental composition. The increase in the CIEL* coordinate and ∆E color variation noticed after the treatment with the nanolimes is associated with a white haze formation on the paint surfaces. The impact on color appearance is higher on the darker tones.

STUDY OF EFFECT OF AYURVEDIC PHARMACEUTICAL PROCESSING NAMED SHODHANA AND MARANA ON THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE OF METAL IRON AND IRON-CONTAINING MINERALS USING XRD AND XRF ANALYSIS

Objective: This study was designed to evaluate the effect of Ayurvedic pharmaceutical procedures Shodhana and Marana on the chemical composition of the raw material. Methods: Iron and four iron-containing minerals were subjected to Shodhana and Marana. For Shodhana, Loha (Iron), Suvarnamakshika (Copper pyrite) and Mandura (iron slag,) were repeatedly quenched sequentially in sesamin oil, buttermilk, cow’s urine, natural vinegar and herbal decoctions. Kasisa (green vitriol) was grinded in the juice of Eclipta Alba. For Marana, these materials were first grinded in prescribed liquids and then incinerated in closed earthenware caskets in measured pits. Powdered Gairika (red ochre) was roasted in Cow’s ghee for its Shodhana. Samples of Loha (iron)-L1, Samanya Shodhita Loha–L2, Vishesha Shodhita Loha–L3, Loha bahsma-L4, Mandura (iron slag)–M1, Shodhita Mandura–M2, Mandura bahsma–M3, Suvarnamakshika (copper pyrite)-S1, Shodhita Suvarnamakshika-S2, Suvarnamakshika bhasma-S3, Kasisa (green vitriol)-K1, Shodhita Kasisa-K2, Kasisa bahsma–K3, Gairika (red ochre)-G1 and Shodhita gairika-G2; were studied using XRF and XRD techniques. Results: XRD findings suggested that the Chemical nature, elemental composition and Crystaline lattice structure of each substance were altered after extensive processings. XRF studies confirmed the multi-elemental nature of the final products. Reduction in particle size and other morphological changes were observed in intermediate and finished products during each procedure. Conclusion: The study indicates that the composition of material is altered as a result of Ayurvedic pharmaceutical processing, ’Shodhana and Marana.

A Multi-Analytical Study of Egyptian Funerary Artifacts from Three Portuguese Museum Collections

A diachronic, multi-analytical approach combining EDXRF, µFTIR, µRaman, SEM-EDS, and Py-GC/MS has been adopted with the aim to study for the first time the painting materials used to decorate Egyptian funerary masks and sarcophagi ranging from the Late Period to the Roman Period and stored in the Archaeological National Museum (MNA) and the Carmo Archaeological Museum (MAC) of Lisbon and the Natural History Museum of the University in Oporto (MNH-FCUP). Results indicate that yellow and red ochres, realgar, cinnabar, Egyptian blue, and Egyptian green were used as pigments while chalk served as the preparatory layer. Over the 1000-year timeline of the studied artifacts, the palette remained remarkably consistent with previous findings as exemplified by cinnabar being used for red pigments in samples only dated after the Ptolemaic period. The presence of Sn in Egyptian blue and Egyptian green pigments used in one sample suggests the use of recycled bronze scraps during pigment production. Black pigments in two Late Period masks were found to be produced by mixing Egyptian blue with red ochre suggesting either a hitherto unknown method for production of purple pigments in the Egyptian palette or, alternatively, an attempt to create a specific hue or shade of dark brown or black. The results of this study contribute to further expand the database of Ancient Egyptian painting materials while at the same time helping to valorize three important Egyptian collections in Portugal.