Recoupled Pair Bond Research Articles

Dynamical electron correlation and the chemical bond. II. Recoupled pair bonds in the a4Σ- states of CH and CF.

We extended our studies of the effect of dynamical electron correlation on the covalent bonds in the AH and AF series (A = B-F) to the recoupled pair bonds in the excited a4Σ- states of the CH and CF molecules. Dynamical correlation is energetically less important in the a4Σ- states than in the corresponding X2Π states for both molecules, which is reflected in smaller changes in bond energies (De). Changes in the equilibrium bond distance (Re) and vibrational frequency (ωe), on the other hand, are influenced by the changes in the slope and curvature of the dynamical electron correlation energy as a function of the internuclear distance R, EDEC(R). In the CH(a4Σ-) state, these changes are much smaller than in the CH(X2Π) state, but in the CF(a4Σ-) state, they are larger, reflecting a significant difference in the shapes of EDEC(R) curves. At large R, the shape of EDEC(R) curves for covalent and recoupled pair bonds is similar although different in magnitude. For the CH(a4Σ-) state, EDEC(R) has a minimum at R = Re + 0.72 Å as the orbitals associated with the formation of the recoupled pair bond switch places. EDEC(R) for the CF(a4Σ-) state decreases continuously throughout the bound region of the potential energy curve because the dynamical correlation energy associated with the electrons in the lone pair orbitals is increasing. These results support our earlier conclusion that we still have much to learn about the nature of dynamical electron correlation in molecules.

New Insights into the Remarkable Difference between CH5- and SiH5.

It has long been known that there is a fundamental difference in the electronic structures of CH5- and SiH5-, two isoelectronic molecules. The former is a saddle point for the SN2 exchange reaction H- + CH4 → [CH5-]‡ → CH4 + H-, while the latter is a stable molecule that is bound relative to SiH4 + H-. SCGVB calculations indicate that this difference is the result of a dramatic difference in the nature of the axial electron pairs in these anions. In SiH5-, the axial pairs represent two stable bonds-a weak recoupled pair bond dyad. In CH5-, the axial electron pairs represent an intermediate transition between the electron pairs in the reactants and those in the products. Furthermore, the axial orbitals at the saddle point in CH5- are highly overlapping, giving rise to strong Pauli repulsion and a high barrier for the SN2 exchange reaction.

Spin-Coupled Generalized Valence Bond Description of Group 14 Species: The Carbon, Silicon and Germanium Hydrides, XH n ( n = 1-4).

Although elements in the same group in the Periodic Table tend to behave similarly, the differences in the simplest Group 14 hydrides-XH n (X = C, Si, Ge; n = 1-4)-are as pronounced as their similarities. Spin-coupled generalized valence bond (SCGVB) as well as coupled cluster [CCSD(T)] calculations are reported for all of the molecules in the CH n/SiH n/GeH n series to gain insights into the factors underlying these differences. It is found that the relative weakness of the recoupled pair bonds of SiH and GeH gives rise to the observed differences in the ground state multiplicities, molecular structures, and bond energies of SiH n and GeH n. A number of factors that influence the strength of the recoupled pair bonds in CH, SiH, and GeH were examined. Two factors were identified as potential contributors to the decrease in the strengths of these bonds from CH to SiH and GeH: (i) a decrease in the overlap between the orbitals involved in the bond and (ii) an increase in Pauli repulsion between the electrons in the two lobe orbitals centered on the X atoms. Finally, an analysis of the hybridization of the SCGVB orbitals in XH4 indicates that they are closer to sp hybrids than sp3 hybrids, which implies that the underlying cause of the tetrahedral structure of the XH4 molecules is not a direct result of the hybridization of the X atom orbitals.

High level ab initio calculations on ClFn− (n = 1–6): Recoupled pair bonding involving a closed-shell central ion

In this paper we complete our studies of the bonding in the ClFn+,0,− series, characterizing the structures and energetics of the ground and low-lying excited states of ClFn− (n=1–6) via coupled cluster calculations with large correlation consistent basis sets and interpreting the results of the calculations using concepts from generalized valence bond (GVB) theory. The chlorine anion is isoelectronic with the argon atom, possessing three 3p lone pairs. However, the electrons in Cl− are much less tightly bound than those of Ar, and it is thus possible for the fluorine atom to form recoupled pair bonds and recoupled pair bond dyads with the chlorine anion even if this is not possible with the argon atom. The calculated dissociation energies, D0(Fn−1ClF), for the anions are 28.9, 72.3, 12.5, 59.9, 4.5, and 38.8kcal/mol for n=1–6, and the adiabatic electron affinities, EA0(ClFn), are 2.25, 4.78, 3.29, 5.47, 3.80, and 5.43eV, respectively [CCSD(T)/RCCSD(T)/AVQ+Z]. Unlike the cation series, the ClFn− anions have competing dissociation channels, ClFn−→ClFn−1+F− and ClFn−→ClFn−1−+F, because of the similar electron affinities of the fluorine atom and some of the ClFn−1 species. The ClF2− and ClF4− anions dissociate to F− and (ClF, ClF3), while the remaining members of the family dissociate to F and ClFn−1−. However, the electronic structure of the ClF2− species at its equilibrium geometry is consistent with the addition of a fluorine atom to ClF−. In addition to the ground states of ClFn−, three previously unknown excited states were found for ClF2−, ClF3−, and ClF4− with excitation energies of ΔE0=2.24, 2.02 and 2.11eV, respectively. In contrast to the ground states, which possess the maximum number of recoupled pair bond dyads, the excited state species have one fewer dyad and two additional recoupled pair bonds.

Fundamental Aspects of Recoupled Pair Bonds. III. The Frustrated Recoupled Pair Bond in Oxygen Monofluoride.

In a previous paper in this series, we discussed the formation of recoupled pair bonds in the a4Σ- states of CF and SF in which the recoupling process was essentially complete at the equilibrium geometry of the molecule. In this paper, we examine the a4Σ- state of oxygen monofluoride (OF), which could also have a recoupled pair bond. Unlike the other two molecules, generalized valence bond calculations predict that the recoupling in OF is woefully incomplete at Re and the resulting potential energy curve for the OF(a4Σ-) state is purely repulsive; the binding energy, ≈11 kcal/mol, is entirely due to dynamical correlation. A number of factors account for these differences, but the nature of the dominant correlation effect in the oxygen 2p lone pair as well as the spatial extent of the 2p orbital are paramount.

Generalized Valence Bond Description of Chalcogen-Nitrogen Compounds. III. Why the NO-OH and NS-OH Bonds Are So Different.

Crabtree et al. recently reported the microwave spectrum of nitrosyl-O-hydroxide (trans-NOOH), an isomer of nitrous acid, and found that this molecule has the longest O-O bond ever observed: 1.9149 Å ± 0.0005 Å. This is in marked contrast to the structure of the valence isoelectronic trans-NSOH molecule, which has a normal NS-OH bond length and strength. Generalized valence bond calculations show that the long bond in trans-NOOH is the result of a weak through-pair interaction that singlet couples the spins of the electrons in singly occupied orbitals on the hydroxyl radical and nitrogen atom, an interaction that is enhanced by the intervening lone pair of the oxygen atom in NO. The NS-OH bond is the result of the formation of a stable recoupled pair bond dyad, which accounts for both its length and strength.

Insights into the Electronic Structure of Ozone and Sulfur Dioxide from Generalized Valence Bond Theory: Addition of Hydrogen Atoms.

Ozone (O3) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) are valence isoelectronic species, yet their properties and reactivities differ dramatically. In particular, O3 is highly reactive, whereas SO2 is chemically relatively stable. In this paper, we investigate serial addition of hydrogen atoms to both the terminal atoms of O3 and SO2 and to the central atom of these species. It is well-known that the terminal atoms of O3 are much more amenable to bond formation than those of SO2. We show that the differences in the electronic structure of the π systems in the parent triatomic species account for the differences in the addition of hydrogen atoms to the terminal atoms of O3 and SO2. Further, we find that the π system in SO2, which is a recoupled pair bond dyad, facilitates the addition of hydrogen atoms to the sulfur atom, resulting in stable HSO2 and H2SO2 species.

Insights into the Electronic Structure of Ozone and Sulfur Dioxide from Generalized Valence Bond Theory: Bonding in O3 and SO2.

There are many well-known differences in the physical and chemical properties of ozone (O3) and sulfur dioxide (SO2). O3 has longer and weaker bonds than O2, whereas SO2 has shorter and stronger bonds than SO. The O-O2 bond is dramatically weaker than the O-SO bond, and the singlet-triplet gap in SO2 is more than double that in O3. In addition, O3 is a very reactive species, while SO2 is far less so. These disparities have been attributed to variations in the amount of diradical character in the two molecules. In this work, we use generalized valence bond (GVB) theory to characterize the electronic structure of ozone and sulfur dioxide, showing O3 does indeed possess significant diradical character, whereas SO2 is effectively a closed shell molecule. The GVB results provide critical insights into the genesis of the observed difference in these two isoelectronic species. SO2 possesses a recoupled pair bond dyad in the a"(π) system, resulting in SO double bonds. The π system of O3, on the other hand, has a lone pair on the central oxygen atom plus a pair of electrons in orbitals on the terminal oxygen atoms that give rise to a relatively weak π interaction.

Generalized valence bond description of chalcogen-nitrogen compounds. I. NS, F(NS), and H(NS).

The electronic structures of the ground states (X(2)Π) of NS and those (X(1)A') of F(NS) and H(NS), where X(NS) collectively refers to the XNS and NSX isomers, were analyzed within the framework of generalized valence bond theory. The ground state of NS has a recoupled pair π bond, which has a profound effect on its reactivity. For example, the lowest-energy isomer of F(NS) is NSF, which has a recoupled pair bond dyad with N-SF and NS-F bonds lengths and strengths similar to their covalent counterparts in NS and SF. The ground state of NSH, on the other hand, is only weakly bound with a NS-H bond energy 40.20 kcal/mol smaller than that in SH and a N-SH bond energy 40.20 kcal/mol less than that in NS. At its equilibrium geometry, the NSH molecule is best viewed as derived from the N((2)D) + SH(X(2)Π) separated fragments, with the weak NS-H bond resulting from unfavorable interactions between the SH bond pair and the nitrogen lone pair. Addition of F/H atoms to the nitrogen atom in NS disrupts the NS recoupled pair bond, which weakens both the FN-S/HN-S and F-NS/H-NS bonds. In contrast to the formation of recoupled pair σ bonds, formation of the recoupled pair π bond in NS is expressed as a change in the spin-coupling coefficients, rather than an interchange of the orbitals.

Fundamental aspects of recoupled pair bonds. I. Recoupled pair bonds in carbon and sulfur monofluoride.

The number of singly occupied orbitals in the ground-state atomic configuration of an element defines its nominal valence. For carbon and sulfur, with two singly occupied orbitals in their (3)P ground states, the nominal valence is two. However, in both cases, it is possible to form more bonds than indicated by the nominal valence--up to four bonds for carbon and six bonds for sulfur. In carbon, the electrons in the 2s lone pair can participate in bonding, and in sulfur the electrons in both the 3p and 3s lone pairs can participate. Carbon 2s and sulfur 3p recoupled pair bonds are the basis for the tetravalence of carbon and sulfur, and 3s recoupled pair bonds enable sulfur to be hexavalent. In this paper, we report generalized valence bond as well as more accurate calculations on the a(4)Σ(-) states of CF and SF, which are archetypal examples of molecules that possess recoupled pair bonds. These calculations provide insights into the fundamental nature of recoupled pair bonds and illustrate the key differences between recoupled pair bonds formed with the 2s lone pair of carbon, as a representative of the early p-block elements, and recoupled pair bonds formed with the 3p lone pair of sulfur, as a representative of the late p-block elements.

Fundamental aspects of recoupled pair bonds. II. Recoupled pair bond dyads in carbon and sulfur difluoride.

Formation of a bond between a second ligand and a molecule with a recoupled pair bond results in a recoupled pair bond dyad. We examine the recoupled pair bond dyads in the a(3)B1 states of CF2 and SF2, which are formed by the addition of a fluorine atom to the a(4)Σ(-) states of CF and SF, both of which possess recoupled pair bonds. The two dyads are very different. In SF2, the second FS-F bond is very strong (De = 106.3 kcal/mol), the bond length is much shorter than that in the SF(a(4)Σ(-)) state (1.666 Å versus 1.882 Å), and the three atoms are nearly collinear (θe = 162.7°) with only a small barrier to linearity (0.4 kcal/mol). In CF2, the second FC-F bond is also very strong (De = 149.5 kcal/mol), but the bond is only slightly shorter than that in the CF(a(4)Σ(-)) state (1.314 Å versus 1.327 Å), and the molecule is strongly bent (θe = 119.0°) with an 80.5 kcal/mol barrier to linearity. The a(3)B1 states of CF2 and SF2 illustrate the fundamental differences between recoupled pair bond dyads formed from 2s and 3p lone pairs.

Effects of ligand electronegativity on recoupled pair bonds with application to sulfurane precursors.

Recoupled pair bonds (RPBs) are conditional bonds-they only form for selected central atoms and ligands. A complete theoretical description of RPBs requires an understanding of the properties of the central atom and ligands that enable such bonds to be formed. In this work, we show that ligand electronegativity is positively correlated with recoupled pair bond strength for a variety of ligands interacting with the 3p(2) pair of sulfur. We also describe substituent (X) effects on the SF(a(4)Σ(-)) state by investigating X2SF species. These effects generally mirror those observed for covalently bound analogues, but we found that recoupled pair bonding can lead to breakdowns in the expected relationships among bond length, strength, and force constant for some of these species. Finally, we compare the properties of two molecules of practical interest that are bound by recoupled pair bonds: the dimethyl sulfur fluoride and hydroxide radicals (DMS-F and DMS-OH).

Why edge inversion? Theoretical characterization of the bonding in the transition states for inversion in F n NH(3−n) and FnPH(3−n) (n = 0–3)

As first noted by Dixon et al. (J Am Chem Soc 108:2461–2462, 1986), heavily fluorinated pyramidal phosphorus compounds, e.g., F n PH(3−n) with n > 1, invert through a T-shaped transition state (edge inversion) rather than the D3h-like transition states (vertex inversion) found in the corresponding nitrogen compounds and less fluorinated phosphorus compounds. Subsequent studies by Dixon and coworkers established that this is a general phenomenon and has important chemical consequences. But what is the reason for the change in the structure of the transition state? Recent theoretical investigations have resulted in the discovery of a new type of chemical bond, the recoupled pair bond. In particular, it was found that recoupled pair bond dyads account for the hypervalency of the elements beyond the first row. In this paper, we show that recoupled pair bond dyads also account for the existence of the edge inversion pathway in heavily fluorinated phosphorus compounds and likely account for the presence of the lower energy inversion pathways in pyramidal compounds of other elements beyond the first row.

Bonding in Sulfur–Oxygen Compounds—HSO/SOH and SOO/OSO: An Example of Recoupled Pair π Bonding

The ground states (X(2)A″) of HSO and SOH are extremely close in energy, yet their molecular structures differ dramatically, e.g., re(SO) is 1.485 Å in HSO and 1.632 Å in SOH. The SO bond is also much stronger in HSO than in SOH: 100.3 kcal/mol versus 78.8 kcal/mol [RCCSD(T)-F12/AVTZ]. Similar differences are found in the SO2 isomers, SOO and OSO, depending on whether the second oxygen atom binds to oxygen or sulfur. We report generalized valence bond and RCCSD(T)-F12 calculations on HSO/SOH and OSO/SOO and analyze the bonding in all four species. We find that HSO has a shorter and stronger SO bond than SOH due to the presence of a recoupled pair bond in the π(a″) system of HSO. Similarly, the bonding in SOO and OSO differs greatly. SOO is like ozone and has substantial diradical character, while OSO has two recoupled pair π bonds and negligible diradical character. The ability of the sulfur atom to form recoupled pair bonds provides a natural explanation for the dramatic variation in the bonding in these and many other sulfur-oxygen compounds.

High Level ab Initio Calculations for ClFn+(n= 1–6) Ions: Refining the Recoupled Pair Bonding Model

Based on detailed, high level ab initio calculations on a number of halogenated compounds of second row, late p-block elements, the SF(n), ClF(n), PFn, SCl(n), and SF(n)Cl families, we found that a new type of bond--the recoupled pair bond--accounts for the ability of these elements to form hypervalent, or hypercoordinated, compounds. Hypervalent molecules are formed when it is energetically favorable for the electrons in a lone pair orbital to be recoupled, allowing each of the electrons to form chemical bonds with ligands. In this paper, we characterize the structures and energies of the ground and low-lying excited states of the ClF(n)(+) (n = 1-6) ions, using high level ab initio methods [MRCI, CCSD(T)/RCCSD(T)] with large correlation consistent basis sets. We computed a number of quantities, including ClF(n)(+) structures, bond dissociation energies, and ClF(n) ionization energies and compared our results with the available experimental data. Both the bond dissociation energies and the ionization energies oscillate, variations that are readily explained using the recoupled pair bonding model. Comparisons are drawn between the ClF(n)(+) cations and their counterparts in the isoelectronic SF(n) series, which possess many similarities. We found two significant differences between the ClF(n)(+) and the SF(n) series: (i) the bond dissociation energies of ClF(n)(+) are much weaker than those of the corresponding SF(n) species, and (ii) there is no stable (3)A2 state in ClF2(+) corresponding to the stable state found in SF2. An examination of the Mulliken populations at the HF/AVTZ level for ClF(n)(+) and SF(n) species predicts that the F atom in the axial (recoupled pair bonding) position is more highly charged than the F atom in the equatorial (covalent bonding) position; there is also less charge transfer to the F atoms in ClF(n)(+) than in SF(n). The positive charge on Cl(+) makes it more difficult for an F atom to attract electrons from Cl(+) than from S and correspondingly less favorable to recouple the electrons in the lone pair orbitals in the ClF(n)(+) species.

The First Row Anomaly and Recoupled Pair Bonding in the Halides of the Late p-Block Elements

The dramatic differences between the properties of molecules formed from the late p-block elements of the first row of the periodic table (N–F) and those of the corresponding elements in subsequent rows is well recognized as the first row anomaly. Certain properties of the atoms, such as the relative energies and spatial extents of the ns and np orbitals, can explain some of these differences, but not others.In this Account, we summarize the results of our recent computational studies of the halides of the late p-block elements. Our studies point to a single underlying cause for many of these differences: the ability of the late p-block elements in the second and subsequent rows of the periodic table to form recoupled pair bonds and recoupled pair bond dyads with very electronegative ligands. Recoupled pair bonds form when an electron in a singly occupied ligand orbital recouples the pair of electrons in a doubly occupied lone pair orbital on the central atom, leading to a central atom-ligand bond. Recoupled pair bond dyads occur when a second ligand forms a bond with the orbital left over from the initial recoupled pair bond.Recoupled pair bonds and recoupled pair bond dyads enable the late p-block elements to form remarkably stable hypervalent compounds such as PF5 and SF6 and lead to unexpected excited states in smaller halides of the late p-block elements such as SF and SF2. Recoupled pair bonding also causes the Fn–1X–F bond energies to oscillate dramatically once the normal valences of the central atoms have been satisfied. In addition, recoupled pair bonding provides a lower-energy pathway for inversion in heavily fluorinated compounds (PF3 and PF2H, but not PH2F and PH3) and leads to unusual intermediates and products in reactions involving halogens and late p-block element compounds, such as (CH3)2S + F2.Although this Account focuses on the halides of the second row, late p-block elements, recoupled pair bonds and recoupled pair bond dyads are important in the chemistry of p-block elements beyond the second row (As, Se, and Br) and for compounds of these elements with other very electronegative ligands, such as OH and O. Knowledge of recoupled pair bonding is thus critical to understanding the properties and reactivity of molecules containing the late p-block elements beyond the first row.

Insights into the Unusual Barrierless Reaction between Two Closed Shell Molecules, (CH3)2S + F2, and Its H2S + F2 Analogue: Role of Recoupled Pair Bonding

Early flowtube studies showed that (CH(3))(2)S (DMS) reacted very rapidly with F(2); hydrogen sulfide (H(2)S), however, did not. Recent crossed molecular beam studies found no barrier to the reaction between DMS and F(2) to form CH(2)S(F)CH(3) + HF. At higher collision energies, a second product channel yielding (CH(3))(2)S-F + F was identified. Both reaction channels proceed through an intermediate with an unusual (CH(3))(2)S-F-F bond structure. Curiously, these experimental studies have found no evidence of direct F(2) addition to DMS, resulting in (CH(3))(2)SF(2), despite the fact that the isomer in which both fluorines occupy axial positions is the lowest energy product. We have characterized both reactions, H(2)S + F(2) and DMS + F(2), with high-level ab initio and generalized valence bond calculations. We found that recoupled pair bonding accounts for the structure and stability of the intermediates present in both reactions. Further, all sulfur products possess recoupled pair bonds with CH(2)S(F)CH(3) having an unusual recoupled pair bond dyad involving π bonding. In addition to explaining why DMS reacts readily with F(2) while H(2)S does not, we have studied the pathways for direct F(2) addition to both sulfide species and found that (for (CH(3))(2)S + F(2)) the CH(2)S(F)CH(3) + HF channel dominates the potential energy surface, effectively blocking access to F(2) addition. In the H(2)S + F(2) system, the energy of the transition state for formation of H(2)SF(2) lies very close to the H(2)SF + F asymptote, making the potential pathway a roaming atom mechanism.

Theoretical Studies of the Excited Doublet States of SF and SCl and Singlet States of SF2, SFCl, and SCl2

In previous work, we reported that the lowest-lying excited states of SF, SCl, SF(2), SFCl, and SCl(2) have recoupled pair bonds. In this study, we examine the analogous low-spin states--the (2)Σ(-) and (2)Δ states of SF and SCl and the excited singlet states of SF(2), SCl(2), and SFCl--which also possess recoupled pair bonds. In contrast to the excited states treated previously, the states studied in the present work have the same spin multiplicities as their respective ground states and are thus potentially observable via electronic excitation. Of particular interest are the minima on the (1)A″ potential energy surface of SFCl corresponding to bond-stretch isomers analogous to those found on the (3)A″ surface. In addition, we discovered that the first two excited states ((1)A″) accessible via vertical excitations from the ground state of SFCl have the electronic structure of the bond-stretch isomers. Thus, electronic excitation spectroscopic studies of SFCl could reveal a signature of the bond-stretch isomers. We will also present limited data on the lowest singlet Rydberg states of the triatomic species. Calculations were performed at the MRCI+Q/aug-cc-pV(Q+d,5+d)Z levels of theory.

Bonding and Isomerism in SFn−1Cl (n = 1−6): A Quantum Chemical Study

Using high-level MRCI and CCSD(T) quantum chemical calculations, we report structures, energetics, and other properties of the sulfur fluoromonochloride family (SF(n-1)Cl, n = 1-6). Our group previously studied the sulfur fluoride family (SF(n), n = 1-6) and found that several of the excited states of SF and SF(2) as well as the ground states of SF(3)-SF(6) exhibited a new type of bonding, called recoupled pair bonding. Comparing the SF(n-1)Cl and SF(n) species allows us to study isomerism, apicophilicities, and substituent effects due to the Cl substitution. The primary findings of this work are twofold. First, replacing F with Cl weakens the adjacent S-F bonds by destabilizing the molecule with respect to the pure SF(n) analog. Second, an isomer with a singly occupied S-Cl antibonding orbital is more stable than the analogous isomer with a singly occupied S-F antibonding orbital, thus explaining apicophilicities. This work has also allowed us to further refine and expand our understanding of the nature of the recoupled pair bond model. Finally, we discovered the presence of bond-stretch isomers in the first excited ((3)A'') state of SFCl.

Hypervalency and recoupled pair bonding in the p-block elements

The nature of the bonding in hypervalent molecules has long been a topic of discussion with a number of explanations being offered to rationalize the apparent violation of the octet rule. By examining the formation of the second row fluorides, XF n −1 + F → XF n (X = P, S, Cl), we found that a new type of bond is present in these compounds, the recoupled pair bond, which is distinct from other types of chemical bonds. A recoupled pair bond occurs when it is energetically favorable to uncouple an existing pair of electrons to form bonds, which is favorable for most of the valence s 2 and p 2 pairs in P, S, and Cl. The interplay between the formation of normal covalent bonds and recoupled pair bonds in the XF n species readily explains the structures of these species as well as the large variations observed in the XF n −1–F bond energies. In addition, the formation of recoupled pair bonds leads to the presence of unexpected low-lying excited states in the XF n molecules. We also consider the significant parallels that exist between the XF n families and the YH n families, where Y = Be, B and C. The latter species also involve recoupled pair bonding, which accounts for the divalence of Be, the trivalence of B and the tetravalence of C without invoking the concept of hybridization.