Packet Reception Research Articles

Performance Evaluation of RPL Objective Functions with Different Transmission Range for Media Technology

In the past decades, the Internet of Things (IoT) technology has garnered a lot of research interest. Due to the significant developments in this field, several researchers have started assessing the performance of the RPL’s Objective Functions (OFs). Here, the researchers have attempted to investigate and study the RPL routeing protocol performance by using two OFs, i.e., MRHOF and OF0. They have determined the effect of the sending data packets when they have altered the Transmission Range (TX) and Packet Reception Ratio (RX) values, after changing the number of nodes. They have tested the performance using two metrics, i.e., Power Consumption (PC) and Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR). The results of the study have showed that the RPL performance is affected if the TX range and the RX ratio have been altered. Here, the PC value has increased and the PDR value has decreased when the RX and TX values have decreased. The results of the study have also indicated that the OF0 protocol has showed a better performance about the power consumption compared to the MRHOF. On the other hand, the MRHOF has displayed better PDR values if the RX ratio has ranged between 40 and 60, in a low-density network.

Investigating Master-Slave Architecture for Underwater Wireless Sensor Network.

A significant increase has been observed in the use of Underwater Wireless Sensor Networks (UWSNs) over the last few decades. However, there exist several associated challenges with UWSNs, mainly due to the nodes’ mobility, increased propagation delay, limited bandwidth, packet duplication, void holes, and Doppler/multi-path effects. To address these challenges, we propose a protocol named “An Efficient Routing Protocol based on Master–Slave Architecture for Underwater Wireless Sensor Network (ERPMSA-UWSN)” that significantly contributes to optimizing energy consumption and data packet’s long-term survival. We adopt an innovative approach based on the master–slave architecture, which results in limiting the forwarders of the data packet by restricting the transmission through master nodes only. In this protocol, we suppress nodes from data packet reception except the master nodes. We perform extensive simulation and demonstrate that our proposed protocol is delay-tolerant and energy-efficient. We achieve an improvement of 13% on energy tax and 4.8% on Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR), over the state-of-the-art protocol.

Secure Global Positioning System For Vehicle To Vehicle (V2V) Communication

In this paper, we first focused on the developing a secure global positioning system for vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication which adopts the secure transmission with respect to vehicle location. In literature, different existing positioning and wireless communication technologies have been presented with their detailed comparison with the global positioning system. In methodology we proposed a GPS-based model of Contention Intensity Control with Rate Control (CICRC) for efficient and secure V2V communication. We deduced the PDR and mean packet delay between heavy and low vehicle load scenarios under fully-connected vehicle network case and a hidden terminal participation case. We also presented the PDR and mean packet delay of safety messages generated with deterministic inter-arrival time and exponential inter-arrival time, respectively. Our GPS-based CICRC model provides a good match with simulation results on well-known MATLAB tool with wireless and networking toolbox. We also verified the model by showing our simulation provides good match with analytical results. Finally, comparing PDR, mean delay and PCR with proposed CICRC by some metrics, we can verify that CICRC improves V2V communication performance compared to existing communication methods. The simulation results we obtained show the packet delivery ratio under CICRC increases nearly 10% compared with that under CSMA [8] in heavy vehicle load scenarios for secure communication undermining the vehicle location. We have also found that if packet collisions occur in some vehicles at the during V2V communication, the collision probability between those vehicles in deterministic inter-arrival time will be always higher than that in exponential inter-arrival time. Average successful packet reception time under CICRC is around 20ms lower than CSMA in heavy vehicle loads, which verifies that CICRC improves on CSMA for the GPS performance especially in heavy vehicle load scenarios for secure communication

A novel safety message dissemination framework in LTE‐V2X system

AbstractVehicular communication plays a crucial role in improving road safety and maintaining traffic efficiency through the exchange of safety messages. Besides road safety, it can also be used to support other nonsafety features such as infotainment services, traffic management, parking assistance, and so on. In this article, we explore a hybrid long term evolution vehicle‐to‐everything architecture where we use both vehicle‐to‐infrastructure (V2I) and vehicle‐to‐vehicle (V2V) communication to simultaneously provide high throughput for infotainment services and maintain high reliability and low transmission delay for the safety messages. To this end, we propose V2I and V2V resource allocation algorithms which support a strict allocation priority for the safety messages over the nonsafety messages. We evaluate the performance of the proposed algorithms by extensive simulations using OMNeT++, INET, and SimuLTE softwares and analyze the simulation data using MATLAB software. The simulation results indicate that, as compared with using only V2I communication, the proposed algorithms decrease the end‐to‐end delay (∼23%, on average) of the safety messages with little degradation (< 10%, on average) in throughput of the background traffic. We compare our proposed algorithms with the existing algorithms and find that the proposed algorithms show a performance gain of 36.5% and 45% in terms of end‐to‐end latency and packet reception ratio, respectively.

Analyzing the Performance of WBAN Links during Physical Activity Using Real Multi-Band Sensor Nodes

Wireless body area networks (WBANs) present unique challenges due to their specific characteristics of mobility and over-the-body radio propagation. A huge amount of factors—both internal and external to the network—affect WBAN channel conditions, so a reliable and comprehensive theoretical model of these communications is unfeasible and impractical in real scenarios. Thus, an empirical performance analysis of several WBAN channels is presented in this work, based on the receiver signal strength indicator (RSSI) and packet reception rate (PRR) metrics. Four different static and dynamic activities have been characterized: standing, sitting, cycling and walking. This analysis confirms the theoretical notions of path attenuation due to body parts obstructing the signal path, while serving as a benchmark for the design of future algorithms. The experiments have been carried out with real hardware nodes with wireless interfaces in three ISM bands: 433 MHz, 868 MHz and 2.4 GHz, evaluating the effect of the transmit power and node placement for different subjects. In all scenarios, the PRR metric reaches its maximum of 100% for both sub-GHz bands. Finally, our study concludes that the RSSI metric is sufficient to exploit the periodicity of dynamic activities, without the need for any extra hardware resources.

Energy Minimization Algorithm for Estimation of Clock Skew and Reception Window Selection in Wireless Networks.

The synchronization of time between devices is one of the more important and challenging problems in wireless networks. We discuss the problem of maximization of the probability of receiving a message from a device using a limited listening time window to minimize energy utilization. We propose a solution to two important problems in wireless networks of battery-powered devices: a method of establishing a connection with a device that has been disconnected from the system for a long time and developed unknown skew and also two approaches to follow-up clock synchronization using the confidence interval method. We start with the analysis of measurements of clock skew. The algorithms are evaluated using extensive simulations and we discuss the selection of parameters balancing between minimizing the energy utilization and maximizing the probability of reception of the message. We show that the selection of a time window of growing size requires less energy to receive a packet than using the same size of time window repeated multiple times. The shifting of reception windows can further decrease the energy cost if lower packet reception probability is acceptable. We also propose and evaluate an algorithm scaling the reception window size to the interval between the packet transmission.

Interference-Based QoS and Capacity Analysis of VANETs for Safety Applications

Whether the current IEEE 802.11p communication system meets the stringent quality of service (QoS) requirements for safety applications or not is still not very clear. Signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR) distribution plays a primary role in quantifying the QoS as well as link capacity of IEEE 802.11p in one-dimensional (1-D) highway and two-dimensional (2-D) intersection road. Most of the analytical models based on stochastic geometry assumed ALOHA access to analyze the SINR distribution, while few of the works developed the stochastic geometry based model considering CSMA access but derived the SINR distribution utilizing statistical estimator. On the other hand, the current interference based probability analytic model for the SINR distribution limit the 1-D extension to 2-D, due to the very high numerical computational complexity at 2-D. In this paper, we propose an analytic model under more general non-homogeneous Poisson process (NHPP) node distribution, more general channel fading model ( Nakagami ) with path loss, and noise, for the study of QoS and capacity of VANET for BSM based safety applications in both 1-D highway and 2-D intersection road. The proposed model derives QoS and capacity of VANET BSM broadcast through evaluation of SINR distribution using probability theory and ordered statistics, which has much lower computational complexity compared with the unordered statistic model. The proposed model is validated by NS2 simulation and extended to the derivation of other QoS metrics such as packet reception probability, packet reception ratio, and broadcast link capacity, etc. The performance comparisons between 1-D and 2-D are implemented, and the QoS sensitivity analyses regarding the extension to multi-intersection as well as enlarging interference range are discussed.

Distributed Channel Ranking Scheduling Function for Dense Industrial 6TiSCH Networks.

The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) is considered a key enabler for Industry 4.0. Modern wireless industrial protocols such as the IEEE 802.15.4e Time-Slotted Channel Hopping (TSCH) deliver high reliability to fulfill the requirements in IIoT by following strict schedules computed in a Scheduling Function (SF) to avoid collisions and to provide determinism. The standard does not define how such schedules are built. The SF plays an essential role in 6TiSCH networks since it dictates when and where the nodes are communicating according to the application requirements, thus directly influencing the reliability of the network. Moreover, typical industrial environments consist of heavy machinery and complementary wireless communication systems that can create interference. Hence, we propose a distributed SF, namely the Channel Ranking Scheduling Function (CRSF), for IIoT networks supporting IPv6 over the IEEE 802.15.4e TSCH mode. CRSF computes the number of cells required for each node using a buffer-based bandwidth allocation mechanism with a Kalman filtering technique to avoid sudden allocation/deallocation of cells. CRSF also ranks channel quality using Exponential Weighted Moving Averages (EWMAs) based on the Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI), Background Noise (BN) level measurements, and the Packet Delivery Rate (PDR) metrics to select the best available channel to communicate. We compare the performance of CRSF with Orchestra and the Minimal Scheduling Function (MSF), in scenarios resembling industrial environmental characteristics. Performance is evaluated in terms of PDR, end-to-end latency, Radio Duty Cycle (RDC), and the elapsed time of first packet arrival. Results show that CRSF achieves high PDR and low RDC across all scenarios with periodic and burst traffic patterns at the cost of increased end-to-end latency. Moreover, CRSF delivers the first packet earlier than Orchestra and MSF in all scenarios. We conclude that CRSF is a viable option for IIoT networks with a large number of nodes and interference. The main contributions of our paper are threefold: (i) a bandwidth allocation mechanism that uses Kalman filtering techniques to effectively calculate the number of cells required for a given time, (ii) a channel ranking mechanism that combines metrics such as the PDR, RSSI, and BN to select channels with the best performance, and (iii) a new Key Performance Indicator (KPI) that measures the elapsed time from network formation until the first packet reception at the root.

Multi-hop communication protocol for LoRa with software-defined networking extension

Long Range (LoRa) is a leading low-power wide-area networking technology, and LoRaWAN is the open MAC layer specification for LoRa technology. LoRaWAN operates in a star network topology, thus LoRaWAN forms single-hop network. LoRa technology allows customization of its PHY layer transmission parameters, such as bandwidth, spreading factor, transmission power, and coding rate, therefore long coverage can be achieved by using a lower bandwidth. However, a single-hop LoRaWAN network cannot achieve high data rate and long coverage simultaneous. To simultaneously achieve high data rate and long coverage, the LoRa PHY layer setting that yields the fastest data rate can be used, however it reduces coverage. To makeup for the reduced coverage multi-hop communication can be used. To enable multi-hop communication here a routing protocol for LoRa-based networks is presented. Moreover, to enable traffic engineering in LoRa-based networks, such as traffic load balancing a software-defined networking (SDN) extension for the protocol is also presented. Performance evaluation has shown that the proposed protocol and its SDN-based extension can match the coverage of LoRa PHY layer setting that offers maximum coverage at a relatively very high data rate and lower energy consumption. The protocol demonstrates up to 5 times higher packet reception ratio, and 63% lower energy consumption compared to the LoRa PHY layer setting that offers maximum coverage and reliability. Moreover, the protocols also outperform an existing state-of-the-are routing protocol for low-power wireless networks.

EMSNDP: Energy Minimized Optimal Zone Selection of Sensor Network to Build the Data Path for IoTN

Wireless sensor network contains a huge volume of sensors that are capable of observing environmental data and conveying that information to the base station. The zone routing is a way to group sensors into multiple clusters in sensing field. In general, each zone has a single co-ordinator that operates as a zone head and accountable to collect the data from all sensors inside the zone and then forward it to the base station. Clustering and energy efficient path construction to base station is a major issue in sensor networks. This paper concentrates on clustering the sensing field into zones and further splitting it into zone quadrants to maximize the energy efficiency of sensor nodes with minimum delay transmission time. An “Energy Minimized optimal zone selection of Sensor Networks to build the Data Path” protocol is proposed in this paper to minimize the load on zone heads by using the zone coordinators to gather the information from different quadrants of zone. Distance-based communication with the minimum hop is opted to minimize the energy cost. A critical evaluation is carried out on the proposed protocol in the context of total energy consumption of network and average energy consumed per node, lifetime of the Network, delay in reception of packet and packet delivery ratio. The results of our research work and analyzed and benchmarked against similar protocols using Network Simulator 2. The outcome of this research is a reduced delay in packet processing with low energy consumption which significantly increases lifetime of sensor network.

Highly Reliable MAC Protocol Based on Associative Acknowledgement for Vehicular Network

IEEE 1609/802.11p standard obligates each vehicle to broadcast a periodic basic safety message (BSM). The BSM message comprises a positional and kinematic information of a transmitting vehicle. It also contains emergency information that is to be delivered to all the target receivers. In broadcast communication, however, existing carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) medium access control (MAC) protocol cannot guarantee a high reliability as it suffers from two chronic problems, namely, access collision and hidden terminal interference. To resolve these problems of CSMA MAC, we propose a novel enhancement algorithm called a neighbor association-based MAC (NA-MAC) protocol. NA-MAC utilizes a time division multiple access (TDMA) to distribute channel resource into short time-intervals called slots. Each slot is further divided into three parts to conduct channel sensing, slot acquisition, and data transmission. To avoid a duplicate slot allocation among multiple vehicles, NA-MAC introduces a three-way handshake process during slot acquisition. Our simulation results revealed that NA-MAC improved packet reception ratio (PRR) by 19% and successful transmission by 30% over the reference protocols. In addition, NA-MAC reduced the packet collisions by a factor of 4. Using the real on-board units (OBUs), we conducted an experiment where our protocol outperformed in terms of PRR and average transmission interval by 82% and 49%, respectively.

Experimental Evaluation of the Packet Reception Performance of LoRa.

LoRa technology is currently one of the most popular Internet of Things (IoT) technologies. A substantial number of LoRa devices have been applied in a wide variety of real-world scenarios, and developers can adjust the packet reception performance of LoRa through physical layer parameter configuration to meet the requirements. However, since the important details of the relationship between the physical layer parameters and the packet reception performance of LoRa remain unknown, it is a challenge to choose the appropriate parameter configuration to meet the requirements of the scenarios. Moreover, with the increase in application scenarios, the requirements for energy consumption become increasingly high. Therefore, it is also a challenge to know how to configure the parameters to maximize the energy efficiency while maintaining a high data rate. In this work, a complex evaluation experiment on the communication capability under a negative Signal to Noise Ratio is presented, and the specific details of the relationship between physical layer parameters and the packet reception performance of LoRa are clarified. Furthermore, we study the impact of the packet length on the packet reception performance of LoRa, and the experimental results show that when there is a large amount of data to be transmitted, it is better to choose long packets instead of short packets. Finally, considering the influence of physical layer parameters and the packet length on the packet reception performance of LoRa, the optimal parameter combination is explored, so as to propose a transmission scheme with a balanced reliability, delay, and energy consumption. This scheme is the first to consider the physical layer parameters and packet length together to study the communication transmission scheme, which reduces the communication time by 50% compared with the traditional transmission scheme and greatly reduces the energy consumption.

VehCom: Delay-Guaranteed Message Broadcast for Large-Scale Vehicular Networks

Timely vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication is a key component of intelligent transportation systems to improve driving safety and efficiency. Although many results have been produced for vehicular networks, most of them focused on improving vehicular communication capacity and reliability. Very limited progress has been made so far in the design of practical V2V communication schemes for large-scale vehicular networks. In this paper, we present VehCom, a fully distributed message broadcast scheme for V2V communication networks. VehCom offers a delay guarantee for each vehicle's message broadcast while minimizing the packet loss rate. The enabler of VehCom is an asynchronous packet reception technique, which leverages a vehicle's multiple antennas to decode asynchronous collided packets from its neighboring vehicles. We have implemented the asynchronous packet reception technique on a vehicular wireless testbed, and examined the performance of VehCom in a large-scale vehicular network where i) each vehicle is equipped with four antennas, ii) each vehicle has 240 vehicles in its communication range, and iii) each vehicle broadcasts a 624-bit packet over 10 MHz spectrum in every 100 ms (guaranteed delay). Our experimental and analytical results show that the packet loss rate is less than 3.9% on parking lots, less than 4.1% on local roads, and less than 6.2% on highways.

CoHop

Cross-Technology Interference (CTI) badly harms the transmission reliability for low-power networks such as ZigBee at 2.4-GHz band. Though promising, channel hopping still faces challenges because the increasingly dense deployment of CTI leaves very few available channels. Selecting a good channel with the least overhead is crucial but challenging. Most of the existing works are heuristic methods that choose a channel far from the current one to avoid adjacent channels that may be correlatively interfered by CTI with a wider bandwidth such as WiFi. However, we observe that the correlated channels influenced by the same CTI source do not necessarily have the same channel qualities and even the opposite state, due to the uneven spectrum power density of CTI. Such channel opportunities are unexplored and wasted. In this article, we propose CoHop, a quantitative correlation-based channel hopping method for low-power wireless networks. We establish a quantitative model that describes the correlation of channel qualities to capture channel opportunities and calculate channel quality without probing, to reduce probing overhead. The probing sequence is optimized based on the Pearson Correlation Coefficient and the prediction-based probing algorithm. We implement CoHop on TinyOS and evaluate its performance in various environments. The experimental results show that CoHop can increase the Packet Reception Ratio by 80%, compared with existing methods.

Dynamic optimized cooperation in multi‐source multi‐relay wireless networks with random linear network coding

The authors present a strategy that improves the reliability of data transmission from multiple sources towards a destination D via multiple relays over wireless channels. After the broadcast phase, the destination selects the best cooperative direct link sources with the highest instantaneous signal-to-noise ratio , then generates and sends the random linear network coding coefficient matrix to the relays. After receiving the random linear network coding–coded symbols (packets) from the relays, D completes the reception and decoding of all source nodes packets. Monte Carlo simulations are conducted with Galois field (GF) () symbols ( = 2, 4 and 8) and the results are compared with the scenario of static cooperative direct links. An important decrease of symbol error rate (SER) is achieved. Furthermore, the efficiency of this approach is confirmed for the whole range of possible values of path loss exponent on direct links, that is, all types of environment between source nodes and destination D.

Packet Reception Probabilities in Vehicular Communications Close to Intersections

Vehicular networks allow vehicles to share information and are expected to be an integral part of future intelligent transportation systems (ITS). To guide and validate the design process, analytical expressions of key performance metrics such as packet reception probabilities and throughput are necessary, in particular for accident-prone scenarios such as intersections. In this paper, we present a procedure to analytically determine the packet reception probability and throughput of a selected link, taking into account the relative increase in the number of vehicles (i.e., possible interferers) close to an intersection. We consider both slotted Aloha and CSMA/CA MAC protocols, and show how the procedure can be used to model different propagation environments of practical relevance. The procedure is validated for a selected set of case studies at low traffic densities.

Investigation of MAC Algorithms for Cross-Boundary Exchange between Wireless Sensor Networks

Increasing deployments of wireless sensor networks (WSNs), following the trend of the Internet of Thing (IoT), heightens the probability of the spatial overlap between WSNs in the same local area. The direct communication between distinctive networks can be supported by the direct interconnection between sensor nodes in any possible intersecting area. The packet transfer between the neighbouring networks offers multiple benefits by sharing data or network resources. However, the communication protocol adopted by each WSN can be different due to its conditions design and preferences preventing transmission and reception of packets from other network domains. One of the possible solutions for the compatibility problem is using a lightweight communication protocol for communication across the boundary while allowing networks to use its preferred communication stack inside its domain. This work investigates the MAC algorithm used for communication across the network boundary. The synchronous/asynchronous duty cycle MAC algorithm is practically evaluated by using a testbed. The experiment results suggest using the synchronous duty cycle protocol for communication across the network boundary consumes less energy offers improved latency and reliability than the previously proposed asynchronous duty cycle protocol.

RPL Cross-Layer Scheme for IEEE 802.15.4 IoT Devices With Adjustable Transmit Power

We propose a novel cross-layer scheme to reduce energy consumption in wireless sensor networks composed of IEEE 802.15.4 IoT devices with adjustable transmit power. Our approach is based on the IETF’s Routing Protocol for Low power and lossy networks (RPL). Nodes discover neighbors and keep fresh link statistics for each available transmit power level. Using the product of ETX and local transmit power level as a single metric, each node selects both the parent that minimizes the energy for packet transmission along the path to the root and the optimal local transmit power to be used. We have implemented our cross-layer scheme in NG-Contiki using the Z1 mote and two transmit power levels (55mW and 31mW). Simulations of a network of 15 motes show that (on average) 66% of nodes selected the low-power setting in a 25m <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$\times25\text{m}$ </tex-math></inline-formula> area. As a result, we obtained an average reduction of 25% of the energy spent on transmission and reception of packets compared to the standard RPL settings where all nodes use the same transmit power level. In large scenarios (e.g., 150m <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$\times150\text{m}$ </tex-math></inline-formula> and 40–100 motes), our approach provides better results in dense networks where reducing the transmit power of nodes does not translate into longer paths to the root nor degraded quality of service.

NA-SMT: A Network-Assisted Service Message Transmission Protocol for Reliable IoV Communications

Cellular V2X (C-V2X) is an emerging standard that will enable the employment of the 6G Internet of Vehicles (IoV). It is envisaged to provide seamless connectivity, long-range communications, higher data rate transmissions, and centralized and ad hoc modes of communications for vehicular applications. In particular, service applications that require data transmission between vehicles and infrastructure stations known as Road Side Units (RSUs) can greatly benefit from C-V2X. In this paper, we propose a Network-Assisted Service Message Transmission (NA-SMT) protocol that uses Uu and PC5 links of C-V2X to efficiently disseminate service messages from RSUs to the vehicles. In the first phase of the NA-SMT protocol, RSUs select downlink relay vehicles for each service message with the highest Channel Quality Indicator ( $CQI$ ) within a defined reliable range of the destination vehicle. The second phase of the NA-SMT protocol schedules V2V transmission by cooperative sub-channel allocation by the RSUs to reliably disseminate service messages to the destination. Simulation results show that NA-SMT protocol improves packet reception ratio and end-to-end delay of service messages at different channel conditions and service message generation rates.

A robust guaranteed time slots allotment scheme for real-time and reliable communication in WBANs

The ever-increasing aging population and expenditure related to healthcare, consequently demand the requirement for a state-of-the-art healthcare system. Wireless body area networks (WBANs) are the potential contender for this requirement. The IEEE 802.15.4 standard is considered a suitable protocol for WBANs and its beacon-enabled mode supports real-time traffic through guaranteed time slots (GTS) feature. Nevertheless, it suffers from reliability and timeliness guarantees. To address this issue, this work advocates a robust guaranteed time slots allotment scheme (RGAS) that consists of two phases, viz.: 1) determination of the severity of sensor data using fuzzy inference system; 2) dynamic allocation of available GTS slots to the contending nodes. Through simulation results, we demonstrate that the proposed RGAS significantly outperforms the existing GTS mechanism specified in the IEEE 802.15.4 in terms of various performance metrics such as packets transmission, packet reception rate, packet loss rate, and effective utilisation of contention free period.