Raven's Test Research Articles

Effects of different types of physical activity on the cognitive functions and attention in older people: A randomized controlled study

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of different types of exercise on cognition. Eighty participants, 32 males and 48 females, aged 66.96±11.73, volunteered for this study. The participants were randomly divided into the four following groups: Resistance Group (RG; n=20), involved in high intensity strength training; Cardiovascular Group (CVG; n=20), involved in high intensity cardiovascular training; Postural Group (PG; n=20) involved in low intensity training, based on postural and balance exercises; and Control Group (CG; n=20). Exercises were performed over the course of 12weeks. All participants were tested for their cognitive functions pre- and post-intervention using the following neurocognitive tests: the Attentive Matrices Test, Raven's Progressive Matrices, Stroop Color and Word Interference Test, Trail Making Test and Drawing Copy Test. Statistical analysis showed that the CVG group improved significantly in the Attentive Matrices Test and Raven's Progressive Matrices (both p=<0.05), whereas the RG group improved in Drawing Copy Test time (p=<0.05). These results confirm that different types of exercise interventions have unique effects on cognition. Cardiovascular training is effective in improving performance attentive and analytic tasks, whereas resistance training is effective in improving praxis. Further investigation is necessary to evaluate the combination of the two exercise types in order to ascertain if their respective effects can be summated when performed together.

Intelligence in Peru: Students' results in Raven and its relationship to SES

Several studies have tried to estimate the average cognitive ability level in Peru. The results oscillated between IQ 90 (Lynn & Vanhanen, 2002) and 85 (Lynn & Vanhanen, 2006, 2012). Moreover, regional studies conducted in the city of Lima and in the Andean mountains, not employed by Lynn and Vanhanen, showed a mean IQ of 90 (IQ 105 for children of middle SES, and IQ 87 for low SES) and IQ of 78 for students from Lima and the Andean mountains respectively. A new randomly selected sample composed of 1097 children (53.5% female), with mean age of 11.6years (SD=0.4; 75% between 11.0 and 11.9years) enrolled in 6th grade from 18 schools (58.9% public schools) located in Lima was assessed using the Standard Progressive Matrices of Raven test. The average IQ was estimated at 91. Considering the three regions in which Peru is divided, the IQ for the whole country was estimated at 84. In addition, this study verified that higher education of parents from lower SES compared to higher education of parents from higher SES had the greatest impact on the intelligence of their offspring.

One Laptop per Child at Home: Short-Term Impacts from a Randomized Experiment in Peru

This paper presents results from a randomized controlled trial whereby approximately 1,000 OLPC XO laptops were provided for home use to children attending primary schools in Lima, Peru. The intervention increased access and use of home computers, with some substitution away from computer use outside the home. Children randomized to receive laptops scored about 0.8 standard deviations higher in a test of XO proficiency but showed lower academic effort as reported by teachers. There were no impacts on academic achievement or cognitive skills as measured by the Raven's Progressive Matrices test. Finally, there was little evidence for spillovers within schools. (JEL I21, I28, J13, O15)

Financial Market Participation and Cognitive Ability: The Risk Aversion Channel

In this study we investigate the relationship between financial market participation and cognitive abilities through risk aversion. Using two cohorts (2005 and 2009) from the Mexican Family Life Survey, we test if individuals with higher cognitive abilities are less risk averse, and as a consequence, they hold more financial assets. The longitudinal structure of our dataset allows us to identify the relationship between cognitive abilities and financial participation. In a first stage we use the individuals' past cognitive ability score from the Raven's test as an instrument for a measure of the current level of risk aversion. In a second stage we relate the adjusted measure of risk aversion with the individual holding of financial assets. Our results provide evidence for the existence of a strong relationship between cognitive abilities and financial market participation through the risk aversion channel, even after accounting for individual income, age, health status, gender, marital status and work category. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study in which financial participation, risk aversion and cognitive abilities are modelled jointly, and in which the risk aversion transmission channel connecting cognitive skills and financial market participation is explicitly studied.

The Shortened Visuospatial Questionnaire for Children: A Useful Tool to Identify Students With Low Visuospatial Abilities

The current research was aimed mainly at exploring the reliability of a short-screening tool developed to self-evaluate visuospatial abilities in children. We presented 290 Italian third, fourth, and fifth graders with the 16-item Shortened Visuospatial questionnaire and several objective measures of intellectual efficiency, such as Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices test, and verbal meaning, spatial relations, and perceptual speed measures based on the Primary Mental Abilities Battery. At the same time, a corresponding 18-item Shortened Visuospatial questionnaire was administered to teachers. Results show a sufficient connection between the visuospatial index of the Shortened Visuospatial questionnaire for children, its counterpart developed for teachers, and objective measures of intellectual efficiency. Finally, Raven's Coloured Progressive Matrices score accurately predicted the visuospatial index of the Shortened Visuospatial questionnaire completed by children. In conclusion, the Shortened Visuospatial questionnaire is a rapid and reliable tool for the early screening of visuospatial deficits.

Order and Chaos in the Brain: Fractal Time Series Analysis of the EEG Activity During a Cognitive Problem Solving Task

The study of brain dynamics has been approached from different mathematical strategies with the aim to obtain more information of the bioelectrical signals coming from an electroencephalogram (EEG). Although several of these tools try to conciliate the fact of using linear approaches to study a non-linear phenomenon, during the last years a set of complementary and alternative approaches has been used to mine deeper into the nature of the brain dynamics and its correlates with experience, thoughts and actions. One of these approaches comes from chaos theory and fractal geometry and considers a model where brain activity, as a time series of an electrical potential variation (EEG) recorded from the scalp, can be assumed as a dynamical state that moves in the range of 1/f α (fractal) noise. In this model it is possible to see brain dynamics as a functional state who moves from more chaotic or unpredictable dynamics (Brown or Gaussian uncorrelated noise), to quasi-chaotic or statistical noise (fractal or self-similar noise). The amount of order into the chaotic EEG background must be an indicator of the organization of brain procedural resources dealing with different circumstances. At the same time, it must reflect the degree of inter-individual differences and intra-individual variability in the way each different brain works. To test this hypothesis we implemented a study where EEG activity was recorded during the performing of a simple visual intelligent test (Raven test, abbreviated version of 15 questions) in a set of 10 adults to study their similarities and differences in the rendering of the test (estimated range of IQ) and in the process of solving the easy and the difficult part of the test. We estimated the Hurst exponent and the fractal dimension of the time series for each of the 14 EEG channels (Emotiv-Epoc® BCI headset) and searched for correlations and consistencies in the values of H and the difficulty level of the cognitive task. We found that order tend to emerge from a chaotic background when brain focuses on problem solving, rising the degree of predictability, self-similarity and persistent behavior of the EEG signal.

Identifying Problem Solving Strategies for Learning Styles in Engineering Students Subjected to Intelligence Test and EEG Monitoring

Abstract The cognitive approach of learning agrees in that behavior of the individual correlates with certain complex and dynamic mental processing operations modulated by certain internal mechanisms learned or improved during life. Applied to university learning, the demand towards students no longer focuses only in the results of the process but, ideally, in the development of individual styles based on cognitive preferences and learning strategies. Several tests such as Kolb and VAK or Hermann dominances allow distinguishing some learning styles such as: Divergent, Assimilator, Convergent and Accommodator; Visual; Kinesthetic; and Auditory. Meanwhile, by using electrophysiological tools like an electroencephalographic (EEG) recording it is now possible to measure individual differences in the varying electrical activity present in the cerebral cortex while a student face a cognitive problem or performs a test of intelligence. In this study, we tested 20 students from their early years of engineering to be classified in three systems of learning styles. The students were then subjected to a test of intelligence (Raven test, abbreviated version of 15 questions) with increasing levels of complexity. The time length to solve the test taken for students previously classified in four main styles yielded by the Kolb test, were analyzed. Then we grouped them by correspondences with the visual, auditory and kinesthetic predominance yielded by the VAK test. The response time was measured and the absolute frequency of response time for each question was calculated. During the Raven test execution an electroencephalogram with Emotiv Epoc Brain-Computer Interface of 14 channels was recorded. After subtracting baseline and eliminating common artifacts with the help of EEGLAB toolbox under Matlab, we obtained clean signals for theta, alpha, beta and gamma bands. Using the set of learning styles classificatory tools and the electrophysiological analysis we started to look for variability and consistencies that support or rise new questions about adequate usefulness of common used psycho-cognitive and behavioral learning styles tests. In our sample we found relatively low discriminative resolution from all learning styles test applied, but a promising research field to study electrical brain activity phenomenology associated with learning and solving problem strategies of the brain.

Formación Universitaria e Inteligencia en Carreras de Ingeniería y Pedagogía: Revisitando un Antiguo Debate

The purpose of this study was to describe and compare mean values of intelligence among university students of Engineering and Pedagogy in a regional state university in Chile. The Raven Test was applied to 220 participants, corresponding to general population (no university students) and to university students of engineering and pedagogy. It was found a high intelligence quotient in students of both groups, higher than in the general population and similar intelligence quotient between engineering students and pedagogy students. In the sub scales differences in scores were not found except in the subscale that has the highest degree of difficulty. The general results are in agreement with classical theories on intelligence but also indicate that differences between careers could be found, especially during the senior level of the university studies.

Effecacy of painting therapy in reducing aggression in children with conduct disorder

Background: The present study was carried out to examine the effectiveness of painting therapy in reducing aggression in children with conduct disorder. Methods: This study was a semi-experimental research (pretest-posttest with control group design) in which the statistical population consisted of thirty 8-12 year-old children with conduct disorder who were studying in Parsabad city in the academic year of 2013-2014 and were selected through convenience sampling method. Then, they were divided into two equal groups (experimental and control) using sample random sampling. The instruments for data collection consisted of Raven's intelligence test, child symptom inventory-4 and Eysenck aggression inventory. The experimental underwent painting therapy for 12 sessions and every session lasted 40 minutes. The obtained data were analyzed by ANCOVA and t-test for dependent and independent groups. Results: There was not a significant difference between the mean aggression scores of experimental group in the post-test and follow up compared with pre-test. Also, a significant difference was reported between the mean aggression scores of experimental and control groups in post-test and follow up phases (P<0.05). Conclusion: Painting therapy is an effective method in reducing aggression in children with conduct disorder.

Functional brain networks contributing to the Parieto-Frontal Integration Theory of Intelligence

The refinement of localization of intelligence in the human brain is converging onto a distributed network that broadly conforms to the Parieto-Frontal Integration Theory (P-FIT). While this theory has received support in the neuroimaging literature, no functional magnetic resonance imaging study to date has conducted a whole-brain network-wise examination of the changes during engagement in tasks that are reliable measures of general intelligence (e.g., Raven's Progressive Matrices Test; RPM). Seventy-nine healthy subjects were scanned while solving RPM problems and during rest. Functional networks were extracted from the RPM and resting state data using Independent Component Analysis. Twenty-nine networks were identified, 26 of which were detected in both conditions. Fourteen networks were significantly correlated with the RPM task. The networks' spatial maps and functional connectivity measures at 3 frequency levels (low, medium, & high) were compared between the RPM and rest conditions. The regions involved in the networks that were found to be task related were consistent with the P-FIT, localizing to the bilateral medial frontal and parietal regions, right superior frontal lobule, and the right cingulate gyrus. Functional connectivity in multiple component pairs was differentially affected across all frequency levels during the RPM task. Our findings demonstrate that functional brain networks are more stable than previously thought, and maintain their general features across resting state and engagement in a complex cognitive task. The described spatial and functional connectivity alterations that such components undergo during fluid reasoning provide a network-wise framework of the P-FIT that can be valuable for further, network based, neuroimaging inquiries regarding the neural underpinnings of intelligence.

A study of intelligence in Jordan .

The Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices test was standardized in Jordan in 2004 on a sample of 1,015 school students ages 12 to 17 yr. The sample obtained a British IQ of 82.6.

Cognitive ability and epistemic rationality: A study in Nigeria and Germany

Based on a Piagetian cognitive epistemology approach, this study investigated cognitive ability levels and their relation to thinking patterns in Nigeria and Germany (NNi=29–47 and NGe=52–70). 12 selected items of the Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices test (APM) and a self-designed questionnaire measuring epistemic rationality (e.g. dealing with health issues, traffic and nature) were administered. The sample was of above-average education. The APM scores were 89.13 for the Nigerian and 111.33 IQ points (Greenwich IQ) for the German subsample (dcorr=1.48, dIQ=22; corrected for education the estimated country IQs would be IQNi=77 and IQGe=99). APM and epistemic rationality correlated r=.61 (attenuated: rττ=.71; N=81). The mean difference in rationality was dcorr=1.85. Comparisons with other studies and everyday behavior suggest that the mean test differences reflect true differences in cognitive ability and epistemic rationality. Cross-country effects were larger than individual effects indicating a strong impact of macro-social factors (partialling out country, the intelligence–epistemic rationality correlation decreases from r=.61 to rp=.27). Consequences for a Piagetian based epistemic rationality theory are discussed.

Early exposure to thimerosal-containing vaccines and children's cognitive development. A 9-year prospective birth cohort study in Poland.

The controversial topic of the early exposure to mercury is regarding ethylmercury, which is present in the thimerosal-containing vaccines (TCVs). The objective of this study was to determine the relationship between the early exposure to TCVs and cognitive development in children during the first 9 years of life. The cohort included 318 children vaccinated in an early period (neonatal and up to 6 months) against hepatitis B and diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis (DTP) using formulation with or without thimerosal. The children’s development was assessed using the Fagan test (6th month of life), the Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID)-II (12th–36th month), the Raven test (5th, 8th year), and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-R) (6th, 7th, 9th year). Results were determined by multivariable linear and logistic regression, adjusted to potential confounders. Children exposed and not exposed to TCVs in the neonatal period had similar outcomes of cognitive-developmental tests; only the results of BSID-II at the 36th month and WISC-R at the 9th year were significantly higher for those exposed to TCVs. Developmental test results in children exposed to TCVs up to the 6th month of life also did not depend on thimerosal dose. Conclusion: TCV administration in early infancy did not affect children’s cognitive development.

Confident Reasoning on Raven's Progressive Matrices Tests

We report a novel approach to addressing the Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM) tests, one based upon purely visual representations. Our technique introduces the calculation of confidence in an answer and the automatic adjustment of level of resolution if that confidence is insufficient. We first describe the nature of the visual analogies found on the RPM. We then exhibit our algorithm and work through a detailed example. Finally, we present the performance of our algorithm on the four major variants of the RPM tests, illustrating the impact of confidence. This is the first such account of any computational model against the entirety of the Raven’s.

Fractals and Ravens

We report a novel approach to visual analogical reasoning, one afforded expressly by fractal representations. We first describe the nature of visual analogies and fractal representations. Next, we exhibit the Fractal Ravens algorithm through a detailed example, describe its performance on all major variants of the Raven's Progressive Matrices tests, and discuss the implications and next steps. In addition, we illustrate the importance of considering the confidence of the answers, and show how ambiguity may be used as a guide for the automatic adjustment of the problem representation. To our knowledge, this is the first published account of a computational model's attempt at the entire Raven's test suite.

The relationship between neurocognition and symptomatology in people with schizophrenia: social cognition as the mediator.

BackgroundThe relationship between neurocognition and symptomatology in people with schizophrenia has been established. The present study examined whether social cognition could mediate this relationship.MethodsThere were 119 participants (58 people with paranoid schizophrenia and 61 healthy controls) participated in this study. Neurocognition was assessed by Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test, the Judgment of Line Orientation Test, and the Tower of London Test. Psychiatric symptoms in people with schizophrenia were assessed by the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale. Social cognition was measured by the Faux Pas Test, the “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” Test, and the Interpersonal Reactivity Index.ResultsResults were consistent with previous findings that neurocognition and social cognition were impaired in the clinical participants. A novel observation is that social cognition significantly mediated the relationship between neurocognition and symptomatology.ConclusionsThese findings suggest that neurocognitive deficits predispose people with schizophrenia to worse psychiatric symptoms through the impairment of social cognition. Findings of the present study provide important insight into a functional model of schizophrenia that could guide the development of cost-effective interventions for people with schizophrenia.

Spaced cognitive training promotes training transfer.

Cognitive training studies yield wildly inconsistent results. One dimension on which studies vary is the scheduling of training sessions (Morrison and Chein, 2011). In this study, we systematically address whether or not spacing of practice influences training and transfer. We randomly assigned 115 fifth grade children to an active control group or one of four training groups who received working memory training based on a “running span” task (Zhao et al., 2011). All groups received the same total amount of training: 20 sessions of training with 60 trials for an average of 20 min per session. The training was spread across 2, 5, 10, or 20 days. The active control group received 20-min sessions of math instruction for 20 sessions. Before and after training participants in all five groups performed a single transfer test that assessed fluid intelligence, the Raven's Progressive Matrices Test. Overall, participants in all four training groups improved significantly on the training task (at least partially), as reflected by increased speed. More importantly, the only training group to show significant improvement on the Raven's was the group who had the greatest amount of spacing (20 days group) during training and improvement in this group was significantly higher than that of the control group.

Variables associated with cognitive, behavioral and emotional development: a cohort of schoolchildren

This study aimed to identify possible variables associated with cognitive, behavioral and emotional development in a cohort of school children, based on biological (sex, gestational age and birth weight) and socioeconomic variables (marital status, maternal and paternal education, occupation of head of household, socioeconomic status, and number of household members). We evaluated 790 children born in a cohort of Ribeirão Preto (SP), Brazil, with 10/11 years of age. The Raven Test was used for cognitive assessment and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire was utilized for emotional and behavioral assessment. By means of multivariate logistic regression analysis (CI 95%) we found that: 1) low maternal schooling was associated with behavioral and emotional problems and poor cognitive function, 2) being female was considered as a protective factor against behavioral problems and 3) low birth weight and prematurity were not associated with the outcomes investigated.

Influence of memory, attention, IQ and age on auditory temporal processing tests: preliminary study.

To investigate the existence of correlations between the performance of children in auditory temporal tests (Frequency Pattern and Gaps in Noise--GIN) and IQ, attention, memory and age measurements. Fifteen typically developing individuals between the ages of 7 to 12 years and normal hearing participated in the study. Auditory temporal processing tests (GIN and Frequency Pattern), as well as a Memory test (Digit Span), Attention tests (auditory and visual modality) and intelligence tests (RAVEN test of Progressive Matrices) were applied. Significant and positive correlation between the Frequency Pattern test and age variable were found, which was considered good (p<0.01, 75.6%). There were no significant correlations between the GIN test and the variables tested. Auditory temporal skills seem to be influenced by different factors: while the performance in temporal ordering skill seems to be influenced by maturational processes, the performance in temporal resolution was not influenced by any of the aspects investigated.

Resting-state networks and dissociation in psychogenic non-epileptic seizures

ObjectivePsychogenic non-epileptic seizures (PNES) are epilepsy-like episodes which have an emotional rather than organic origin. Although PNES have often been related to the process of dissociation, the psychopathology is still poorly understood. To elucidate underlying mechanisms, the current study applied independent component analysis (ICA) on resting-state fMRI to investigate alterations within four relevant networks, associated with executive, fronto-parietal, sensorimotor, and default mode activation, and within a visual network to examine specificity of between-group differences. MethodsTwenty-one patients with PNES without psychiatric or neurologic comorbidities and twenty-seven healthy controls underwent resting-state functional MR imaging at 3.0T (Philips Achieva). Additional neuropsychological testing included Raven's Matrices test and dissociation questionnaires. ICA with dual regression was used to identify resting-state networks in all participants, and spatial maps of the networks of interest were compared between patients and healthy controls. ResultsPatients displayed higher dissociation scores, lower cognitive performance and increased contribution of the orbitofrontal, insular and subcallosal cortex in the fronto-parietal network; the cingulate and insular cortex in the executive control network; the cingulate gyrus, superior parietal lobe, pre- and postcentral gyri and supplemental motor cortex in the sensorimotor network; and the precuneus and (para-) cingulate gyri in the default-mode network. The connectivity strengths within these regions of interest significantly correlated with dissociation scores. No between-group differences were found within the visual network, which was examined to determine specificity of between-group differences. ConclusionsPNES patients displayed abnormalities in several resting-state networks that provide neuronal correlates for an underlying dissociation mechanism.