Ratione Personae Research Articles

PRAKTIK HAK KEKEBALAN DIPLOMATIK PEJABAT SENIOR NEGARA TERHADAP PELANGGARAN BERAT HAM MENURUT YURISPRUDENSI PENGADILAN INTERNASIONAL

<div>This study examines the extend to the applicability of diplomatic immunity rights for senior officials against gross human rights violations they have committed. Toa achieve such aim, the author analysed the different types of immunity granted by international law to state officials, the reasons for the conferment of this immunity, and whether they apply in cases in which it is alleged that an official has committed an international crime. By using a statutory and case approach, the author examines several cases heard before international courts to compare the implementation of immunity rights. The author argues that both immunity ratione materiae and immunity ratione personae cannot be applied to cases that constitute gross violations of human rights. Moreover, instead did not agree with the argument which have been put forward by scholars and ICJ in support of the contrary.</div>

Krivičnopravni imunitet državnih zvaničnika u međunarodnom pravu

The paper analyzes the practice of the states and international courts regarding the recognition, non - recognition or withdrawal of immunity in cases which are in accordance with international criminal law and against state officials, including highlevel officials. This paper offers an analysis of the historical role of World War II in recognizing individual criminal responsibilities in international law, enabling the criminal process and prosecuting officers for violating jus cogens norms. In this sense, we should distinguish the immunity ratione personae (personal immunity) from the immunity ratione materiae (functional immunity). High state officials such as the Head of State, the Prime Minister and the Minister of Foreign Affairs have the immunity ratione personae. On the other hand, the immunity ratione materiae is enjoyed by other officials. While personal immunity derives from the function performed by high-rank officials and should ensure unhindered performance of their duties, functional immunity is the immunity of the state and should primarily protect the state, not the official, because the official acts only on behalf of the state. Based on this, the paper points out that the practice of domestic courts, the International Court of Justice and the International Criminal Court in recognizing or withdrawing immunity of state officials is inconsistent. The paper analyzes the Seventh Report on Immunity of State Officials from foreign criminal jurisdiction by the Commission on International Law and indicates the areas in which the articles of a potential document on the criminal immunity of state officials in international law should be elaborated. In addition to contradictory judgments of the International Court of Justice and the International Criminal Court, the impossibility of defining uniform rules arises because the states have different understanding and believe that the dignity of the state will be endangered if their high officials are prosecuted by courts of other states. The paper concludes that further monitoring of the work of relevant international and domestic courts is needed in order to uniform rules and produce a draft document on criminal immunity of state representatives in international law based on uniform practice.

Peace Agreements as International Legal Acts Protecting National Minorities: The Scope Ratione Personae

Abstract The issue of the protection of national minorities is regulated by acts of international law, frequently arising from international agreements that have been concluded to end armed conflicts or to regulate directly their consequences. Peace treaties concluded between states are governed by the rules set out in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. More and more peace agreements are, however, concluded by non-state actors. As indicated in Article 3 of the Convention, it cannot be excluded that these too would be international agreements, having effects in the sphere of international law. Such acts are concluded, inter alia, by insurgents or belligerents. In some cases, agreements ending non-international armed conflicts are concluded by domestic entities that are not subjects of international law. Such acts may reflect solutions that have been adopted as standards in international practice and in the provisions of international law. These do not necessarily have to be legally binding standards. They can also be framework solutions, including measures relating to the protection of national minorities, which are formulated and offered as proposals for specific regulations.

Competence Ratione Personae of Investment Tribunals: Claims Arising Out of Measures under the European Banking Union Framework

<i>Competence</i> Ratione Personae <i>of Investment Tribunals: Claims Arising Out of Measures under the European Banking Union Framework</i>

Analysis of the legal positions of the European Court of Human Rights on the application of the euthanasia procedure

The article examines the problems of euthanasia and the realization of the human right to suicide with the help of others in the context of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Rights, the case law of the European Court of Human Rights. The authors focused on finding the necessary compromise between protecting the patient's right to life, which is a positive commitment of the state, and protecting the patient's right to respect for private life and individual independence. The main positions of the European Court of Human Rights on the possibility of use in euthanasia and in which cases are analyzed step by step.&#x0D; In each case, it was described under what conditions the applicants had applied to the Court and what the difference was between the cases. It is emphasized what the Court relied on in resolving each individual case. It is stated how the Court interprets the possibility of applying Article 2 of the Convention in a negative light and in what cases and under what conditions the Court considers it necessary to apply the principle of “ratione personae”. It is indicated what is the main difference between active and passive euthanasia, and in which countries any of the forms of termination of life of a sick person is allowed, regulated and clearly regulated. It is noted that the issue of application or discontinuation of treatment was considered taking into account many objective factors that are taken into account in each case. Also, attention is paid to the analysis of the court's position on the importance of the role of the state in matters of termination of life, where countries should be given discretion in deciding on disconnection from artificial life support. Separately, the main risks of legitimizing euthanasia are emphasized, in particular, the authors point to the need to improve and comply with the imperative norms in each country to ensure the fulfillment of the positive responsibilities of each state.

Recent Efforts to Curb Investment Treaty Shopping: How Effective Are They?

In recent years it can be observed that states increasingly introduce explicit limitations to the practice of treaty shopping in their investment agreements. Accordingly, substantive ratione personae requirements, denial of benefits clauses, and anti-circumvention clauses are often included in newly signed investment treaties. In addition to these new drafting trends, arbitral tribunals have developed an implicit limitation in the form of the abuse of process doctrine to sanction the most egregious forms of treaty shopping. While these drafting trends as well as arbitral practice can curb undesired treaty shopping to a certain extent, this article argues that only a multilateral reform effort is able to truly prevent this practice from occurring. Treaty Shopping, Nationality Planning, Corporate Structuring, ISDS Reform, UNCITRAL, Ratione Personae Requirements, Denial of Benefits Clauses, Abuse of Process

The Concept of Employer and the Extension of the Subjective (Ratione Personae) Scope of Collective Labour Law

In accordance with the changes in the provisions of the collective labour law in force since January 1, 2019, an employer within their meaning is also an organizational unit without civil law subjectivity, if it employs work contractors engaged in paid work engaged in paid work other than employees. This leads to the dualism of the notion and legal construction of the entity employing non-employee contractors on the basis of individual and collective relations. In individual legal relations, the entity employing contractors on the basis of civil law contracts may only be a civil law entity. On the other hand, in collective labour relations, organizational unit without civil law capacity may be regarded as their employer. The purpose of this study is to give the reasons for the thesis that such regulation leads to legal confusion, and the most appropriate way to remove it is to link the employer’s subjectivity with civil law subjectivity in individual and collective labour law.

ضوابط اختصاص قضاء الأحداث فی التشریعین المصری والأردنی

لقد عملت التشريعات الحديثة ومنها (التشريع الأردني والتشريع المصري) على التمييز في المعاملة الجزائية بين المجرمين البالغين والأحداث الجانحين، فخصتهم بإجراءات جزائية وأحکام قانونية خاصة وجزاءات وتدابير مناسبة، ترتکز على تطبيق تدابير ملائمة لهم، أملا في إصلاحهم وتهذيبهم وإعادة إدماجهم في المجتمع. کما إن من أهم مظاهر حماية الأطفال الجانحين مرتکبي الجريمة تتمثل في وجود محاکم جنائية خاصة للطفل في أمرهم وکذلک في عدة قواعد إجرائية يجب اتباعها أمام هذه المحاکم، وحرصا من المشرع على إصلاح الحدث وتأهيله اجتماعيا قام بإنشاء محاکم جنائية خاصة للأحداث. وتعتبر ظاهرة جنوح الأحداث من أهم الظواهر الاجتماعية التي تواجه مختلف دول العالم وحظيت هذه الظاهرة بالکثير من الاهتمام في عالمنا المعاصر عموما وتزايد أهميتها عندما يکون مرتکبو الجرائم من فئة الأحداث، کون هذه الفئة تشکل نسبة کبيرة في أي مجتمع وهذا يؤدي إلى المساس بالمجتمع في أهم مصادرة الأساسية التي يعتمد عليها في بنائه المستقبلي إضافة إلى أن انحراف الأحداث يعتبر من أهم جذور الجريمة ويقوم في أدواره الأولى بطريقة فعالة. وتختلف القواعد المنظمة لاختصاص محاکم الأحداث عن غيرها من المحاکم الجنائية منها ما يتعلق بالاختصاص الشخصي والنوعي ومنها ما يتعلق بالاختصاص المکاني، وتختص محکمة الأطفال (الأحداث) اختصاصا شخصيا بنظر قضايا معينة لفئة معينة من المجرمين أو المتهمين دون غيرها بشکل استشاري لا يشارکها في ذلک غيرها من المحاکم. Recent legislation (Jordanian and Egyptian) differentiates in the treatment of juvenile delinquents in criminal law by establishing criminal procedures, special legal provisions and appropriate sanctions and measures based on the application of appropriate measures in the hope of their reform, education and reintegration into society. in order to ensure the reform and social rehabilitation of juveniles, the legislature has established special juvenile criminal courts. Juvenile delinquency is one of the most important social phenomena facing various countries of the world. this phenomenon has received considerable attention in the contemporary world in general and is becoming increasingly important when the perpetrators of crimes are juveniles, since the latter constitute a large proportion of any society in addition, juvenile delinquency is considered one of the most important roots of crime and it plays its early roles in an effective manner. The rules governing the jurisdiction of juvenile courts differ from those of other criminal courts, including ratione personae, ratione materiae and ratione loci. The juvenile court has personal jurisdiction to hear certain cases only for certain categories of offenders or accused persons in an advisory manner not shared by other courts.

Dual Nationality of a Private Investor in Investment Treaty Arbitration: A Potential Barrier to the Exercise of Jurisdiction Ratione Personae?

Abstract One of the fundamental objectives of international investment agreements (IIAs) is to protect the rights and interests of foreign investors in the territory of a contracting State. Why, then, have tribunals often exercised jurisdiction ratione personae over the claims of dual nationals against their own State? The answer lies in the silence of IIAs on the matter of dual nationals. Such agreements have failed expressly to mention dual nationals in their definitions of ‘investor’ or ‘national’, which has created lacunae that are open to interpretation. Tribunals have often fallen back on international law to fill these gaps and accurately to determine the nationality of an investor’s claims. They have taken into consideration the text of the IIAs, the text of institutional rules and the general principles of international law. The principle of ‘dominant and effective nationality’, as propounded in the Nottebohm case, has made frequent appearances in such interpretation processes. However, the application of this principle has been inconsistent over time, with different tribunals taking different stances. In this article, the author traces this varied approaches of tribunals. In doing so, he analyses the text of and the awards delivered in disputes arising out of the Algiers Declaration, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA), the Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and Nationals of Other States (ICSID Convention), the Dominican Republic–Central America Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA), the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) Arbitration Rules and various bilateral investment treaties (BITs). Based on this analysis, the author proposes several changes that States should consider in the future negotiation of BITs to restrict a claim by a dual national against its State of nationality.

Testing the Limits of Jurisdiction in Investor-State Arbitration in Svalbard’s Waters: Peteris Pildegovics and SIA North Star v. Kingdom of Norway

On 1 April 2020, the Latvian fishing company SIA North Star and its owner Peteris Pildegovics initiated an investor-State arbitration against Norway (Peteris Pildegovics and SIA North Star v. Kingdom of Norway) at the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID). This case is not only Norway’s first ever ICSID case, but also the first publicly known investor-State arbitration in which an operator of a fishing vessel has brought a claim against a coastal State for allegedly unlawful exercise of prescriptive and enforcement jurisdiction in relation to fisheries. The case raises intricate questions concerning the limits of jurisdiction ratione materiae and jurisdiction ratione personae of investment tribunals.

The Admissibility Ratione Personae of Extremely Vulnerable Individuals’ Applications to the ECtHR: Substantive Equality in the Protection of the Right to International Justice

The Admissibility Ratione Personae of Extremely Vulnerable Individuals’ Applications to the ECtHR: Substantive Equality in the Protection of the Right to International Justice

Transparency International France v. Mr X

219State immunity — Jurisdictional immunity — Immunity of individual officials — Head of State immunity — Immunity ratione personae and immunity ratione materiae — Immunity ratione personae confined to Head of State and certain high-ranking officials — Immunity ratione materiae applicable only in respect of official acts — Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961 — Vice-President of State accused of misappropriation of funds and money laundering by authorities of another State — Whether entitled to immunity — Immunity of diplomatic agents — State sovereignty — Customary international law — The law of France

Kriterijum kontrole i pravo pravnog lica da se javi kao tužilac u arbitraži pod okriljem IKSID

International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (Centre or ICSID) was established for resolving disputes between foreign investors and host States. This is why jurisdiction ratione personae of the Centre depends crucially on who can be considered as a foreign investor, i.e. which persons have right of standing to initiate arbitration based on the Washington Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and Nationals of other States (the Convention). When a claimant is a juridical person, one of the issues causing a debate in arbitral practice concerns the significance of control over that entity - to what extant is jurisdiction of an ICSID tribunal affected by the fact that the entity is under direct or indirect control of the host State's nationals. The paper examines the problem with regards two groups of cases that the Convention regulates separately. The first group concerns cases in which the role of a claimant belongs to juridical persons nominally holding the nationality of other Contracting States of the Convention. The other category relates to the cases of claims submitted by local entities controlled by foreign investors against their own State.

Przeciwdziałanie unikaniu opodatkowania

Klauzula przeciw unikaniu opodatkowania narusza zasady ustrojowe, które stanowią o respektowaniu przez prawodawcę zasady demokratycznego państwa prawnego (art. 2 Konstytucji). Neguje, i to w sposób oczywisty, jaskrawy, treść zasady zaufania do państwa i stanowionego przez nie prawa podatkowego. Oznacza to, że klauzula stoi w sprzeczności z art. 2 Konstytucji w zw. z art. 31 ust. 3 Konstytucji. Tym samym, został złamany konstytucyjny nakaz, który zobowiązuje prawodawcę do precyzyjnego, tj. jednoznacznego w treści, zakresu i przesłanek dopuszczalnej ingerencji w prawa podmiotowe podatnika. Arbitralne wkroczenie w wolności gwarantowane Konstytucją, w tym wolności gospodarcze, jest tym bardziej niebezpieczne dla podatnika, że przyjęte w klauzuli unormowania proceduralne, które mają chronić podatnika przed nadużyciem stosowania klauzuli, są tylko pozorne i mają charakter złudy prawnej. A to narusza zasadę wzajemnej lojalności w relacjach państwo–podatnik. Klauzula ma kwalifikowane wady, albowiem: a) nie zapewnia bezpieczeństwa prawnego podatnikowi, b) nie respektuje zasady określoności przepisów prawa podatkowego, c) nie respektuje zasady wzajemnej lojalności w relacjach państwo a podatnik, d) narusza także zasadę zaufania do państwa i stanowionego przez nie prawa podatkowego. Z winy prawodawcy konstrukcja prawna klauzuli jest niejasna, nieprecyzyjna, wieloznaczna, a to stwarza niepewność, co do praw i obowiązków podatnika, a zatem stwarza podstawy do arbitralnych rozstrzygnięć organów podatkowych, albowiem swoboda luzu decyzyjnego organu podatkowego jest nadmierna.

La comisión de crímenes contra la humanidad por empresas transnacionales y la ampliación de la competencia ratione personae de la Corte Penal Internacional

¿Pueden las empresas transnacionales perpetrar crímenes contra la humanidad y ser investigadas y procesadas por ello en virtud de las normas e instituciones propias del Derecho internacional penal (DIP)? Este trabajo pretende ofrecer una respuesta a esta pregunta analizando las posibilidades y obstáculos jurídicos que pueden encontrarse en la aplicación del Estatuto de Roma de la Corte Penal Internacional (CPI). En primer lugar, se examina si las empresas transnacionales pueden ser entidades susceptibles de integrarse en el concepto “organización” del art. 7 del Estatuto de Roma de la CPI, convertirse en un actor detrás del elemento de la política en la comisión de los crímenes contra la humanidad y ser penalmente responsable por estos comportamientos en Derecho internacional. Para dar respuesta a esta cuestión se analiza la jurisprudencia reciente de la CPI. En segundo lugar, se aborda la posible extensión de la competencia ratione personae de la CPI a las personas jurídicas, en este caso a las empresas transnacionales, teniendo en consideración argumentos presentes en el Derecho internacional público, en el sistema de la CPI y en el Derecho penal.Recibido: 03 febrero 2020Aceptado: 21 septiembre 2020Publicación en línea: Artículos en Prensa 23 octubre 2020

The Migration Crisis in the Case Law of the ECHR – Some Remarks on the Obligations of Countries to Refugees and Immigrants .

This paper focuses on the scope of obligations of states towards refugees and migrants under the ECHR. It`s introductory part that describes the significance of the ECHR for the European legal order is followed by a detailed analysis of the state`s obligations broken down according to ratione personae – ratione loci – ratione materie scheme. The paper clarifies the distinction between “migrants” and “refugees” (1951 Geneva Convention) and defines situations when ECHR can be applied outside the territory of the State Party (especially in the context of border control and maritime operations). The final part of the paper concentrates of the set of minimal substantial guaranties towards migrants and refugees in the context of living conditions in the centers for foreigners, right to liberty and security of person and right to respect for family life.

Rule 36: Immediate Measures

The provision on immediate measures (mesures immediates) in collective complaints procedures was inserted by the ECSR in its Rules of Procedure during the 250th session on 10 May 2011 and was amended during the 308th session on 10 September 2019 . Its introduction squarely falls within the trend of human rights courts, tribunals and quasi-judicial (treaty) bodies, which provide for the possibility of immediate (interim/provisional) measures when necessary for preventing and suppressing a risk of irreparable injury to the rights of claimants of human rights violations. Since the 2011 introduction of the provision, the ECSR has considered the adoption of immediate measures a couple of times, having granted them on four occasions, while refusing to indicate them in an equal number of instances. The commentary will be structured in the following way: In Part II, we will present the procedural contours of the immediate measures mechanism, focusing on the temporal scope of the request and the measures’ effects, the right to initiate the said procedure as well as issues regarding the standard and burden of proof. In Part III, we will analyze the conditions for indicating immediate measures, that is, the necessity to adopt immediate measures in order to “avoid irreparable injury or harm”. In this framework, we will examine what differences exist in the conceptualization of those terms in cases of collective complaints for alleged violations of the ESC in comparison to the traditional usage of provisional measures for the prevention of irreparable harm to civil rights, such as the right to non-refoulement or the right to life. In Part IV, we will present some examples of immediate measures that have been (or can be) adopted by the ECSR and their scope ratione personae and materiae. In Part V, we will delve into the most controversial aspect of a ECSR decision on immediate measures, namely, its legal status. In all instances, valuable lessons and pertinent analogies will be drawn between the immediate measures mechanism of the ECSR and other human rights bodies’ procedures on provisional/interim measures.

Problematyka roszczeń wysiedlonych Niemców w świetle decyzji ETPC z 2008 r. w sprawie Preussische Treuhand GmbH &amp; CO. Kg A. A. v. Polska

W artykule zostały omówione kwestie poruszone w decyzji o niedopuszczalności skarg w sprawie nr 47550/06. Skarżący utrzymywali, że dokonane przez Polskę wywłaszczenia niemieckiego mienia na dawnych niemieckich terytoriach były sprzeczne z prawem międzynarodowym i spowodowały utrzymującą się sytuację naruszenia prawa własności. Zdaniem skarżących wysiedlenia dokonane w latach 1944-1945 spełniały znamiona zbrodni przeciwko ludzkości. ETPC odrzucił skargi, uznając ich niezgodność ratione personae, ratione temporis oraz ratione materiae. Art. 1 Protokołu Nr 1 do EKPC nie może być interpretowany jako norma nakładająca obowiązek zwrotu mienia wywłaszczonego przez państwo przed ratyfikacją EKPC.

Legal Nature of Advisory Opinions of the International Court of Justice

The article explores the legal nature of advisory opinions of the International Court of Justice. It has been established that advisory jurisdiction consists of at least two main elements – ratione personae and ratione materiae. The original power to request advisory opinions is given to the General Assembly and the Security Council. The Court’s case-law demonstrates that political aspects of question or political motives don’t give any grounds to refuse the request for an advisory opinion. The advisory opinions de jure are not legally binding. However, in practice, due to its quality and the status of the International Court of Justice, the advisory opinions are authoritative. In order for the advisory opinion to be authoritative, it is important that the Court’s position is not divided. Advisory proceedings in its form are similar to the proceedings in disputes, indicating the judicial nature of the advisory opinions. It has been found that in practice, the bodies that requested an advisory opinions of the ICJ, as a rule, follow them. An analysis of the interpretation and application by the Court of the international treaties in the advisory opinions demonstrates that the Court acts as the main judicial organ of the United Nations. There has been established the indirect influence of the ICJ on the formation of an international custom through the use of resolutions of the UN agencies as proof of opinio juris. In the advisory opinion Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations International Court of Justice has created a new rule of international customary law regarding the status of a legal entity in international organizations and, consequently, personal legal personality. It is also worth mentioning the advisory opinion Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, by which the Court has given an impetus to the development of international customary law in the area of reservations to multilateral treaties, in particular with humanitarian purposes. In the advisory opinion of the Western Sahara, the Court not only substantiated the universality of the principle of self-determination, but also clarified what features, in it’s opinion, should have the will of the people. In the advisory opinion Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons the Court substantiated that the rules of international humanitarian law became part of international customary law. Advisory opinion Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory has contributed to the understanding of a number of norms as customary. In particular, the Court confirmed the customary nature of the Hague Convention Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land of 1907. In addition, the Court noted that the obligation to respect the right of other peoples to self-determination was a commitment erga omnes. Key words: court; law; justice; dispute; advisory opinion; case-law; custom.

DIPLOMATIC IMMUNITY AS A TOOL RESEARCH BODIES FOREIGN COUNTRY SERVICES

The article describes the tools that allow diplomats to participate in the intelligence activity in the host country; main forms of such work are considered; key concepts are defined that collectively clarify and specify the main provisions used in diplomatic work.Specific examples show the specific nature of unacceptable illegitimate diplomatic activity, which enables certain foreigners who enjoy diplomatic immunity to conduct intelligence activities and take measures that may be incompatible with diplomatic activity in the host country. This situation becomes especially acute in the conditions of armed aggression against our country. It is noted that in the process of exercising these functions, the diplomats of the aggressor country get the opportunity to support the destructive opposition in the territory of Ukraine, to select agents of influence, to carry out other intelligence activities in our country.The notion of intelligence activity as a kind of foreign policy activity of the state, which is secretly carried out by a system of special services and affiliated organizations using specific means and forces, forms and methods in the interest of achieving certain interests, as well as diplomatic immunity, as release from criminal or administrative the civilian jurisdiction of diplomatic missions and person shaving a diplomatic status in the host countries solely for the effective performance of their duties on them tasks. Therefore, personal (ratione personae) and functional (ratione materiae) immunity should be distinguished, which should extend to government officials.It is determined that diplomatic immunity is regulated not only by a set of international conventions but also by a system of national legalacts; it is proved that modern in ternationall awprovides certain opportunities for conducting intelligence work under diplomatic cover in the host country.