Quantitative Research Studies Research Articles

Audit Committee Members: What Goes on Behind Closed Doors?

Using a qualitative research paradigm, this study examines audit committee effectiveness from the perspective of audit committee members of New Zealand listed companies. The findings reveal that audit committee members perform a range of overlapping tasks and justify their existence in their audit committees by fulfilling the ‘expectations’ that are placed on them. Many quantitative research studies have examined the association between different dimensions of audit committee inputs and financial reporting outputs. The empirical evidence, however, is mixed and remains far from conclusive (Bédard and Gendron 2010). One of the primary reasons for the inconsistent findings is the lack of understanding of the actual process by which audit committees perform their responsibilities. Using a qualitative research paradigm, this study examines audit committee activities, processes and effectiveness from the perspective of audit committee members of New Zealand listed companies. The study argues that performing audit committee duties is an intended process, whereby audit committee members justify their actions and the effectiveness of their audit committees. The paper contributes to the limited literature on how audit committees operate and, by doing so, provides possible explanations for the inconsistent findings of the quantitative audit committee research. In particular, the paper invites further discussion on whether audit committee members can be (or should be assumed to be) independent when discharging their role of overseeing auditing and financial reporting‐related matters.

Distinction and Status Production on User-Generated Content Platforms: Using Bourdieu’s Theory of Cultural Production to Understand Social Dynamics in Online Fields

In this paper, we propose an analytical lens for studying social status production processes across a wide variety of user-generated content (UGC) platforms. Various streams of research, including those focused on social network analysis in social media, online communities, reputation systems, blogs, and multiplayer games, have discussed social status production online in ways that are diverse and incompatible. Drawing on Bourdieu’s theory of fields of cultural production, we introduce the notion of an online field and associated sociological concepts to help explain how diverse types of producers and consumers of content jointly generate unique power relations online. We elaborate on what role external resources and status markers may play in shaping social dynamics in online fields. Using this unifying theory we are able to integrate previous research findings and propose an explanation of social processes behind both the similarity across UGC platforms, which all offer multiple ways of pursuing distinction through content production, as well as the differences across such platforms in terms of which distinctions matter. We elaborate what role platform design choices play in shaping which forms of distinction count and how they are pursued as well as implications these have for status gaining strategies. We conclude the paper by suggesting how our theory can be used in future qualitative and quantitative research studies.

Laying the Base for the Future

The passage of the Jacob K. Javits Gifted and Talented Students Education Act in 1988 was truly a watershed moment in the field of gifted education. The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented (NRC/GT) represented one part of the overall agenda of research and services supported by the Javits Act. How the Javits Act came to be and the rationale and decisions that formed the underlying framework for Javits are the foci of the first part of this article. The second part of this article provides a brief overview of the NRC/GT organization and mission. Multiple research teams associated with the NRC/GT implemented quantitative and qualitative research studies, invited outstanding scholars in the field to contribute to our research series, and carried out leadership duties assigned to the Center, which have been complementary additions to many contributions made by the other Javits projects over the past several decades.

A quantitative systematic review of the efficacy of mobile phone interventions to improve medication adherence

To evaluate the characteristics and efficacy of mobile phone interventions to improve medication adherence. Secondary aims are to explore participants' acceptability and satisfaction with mobile phone interventions and to evaluate the selected studies in terms of study rigour, impact, cost and resource feasibility, generalizability and implications for nursing practice and research. Medication non-adherence is a major global challenge. Mobile phones are the most commonly used form of technology worldwide and have the potential to promote medication adherence. Guidelines from the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination were followed for this systematic review. A comprehensive search of databases (PubMed, Web of Science, CINAHL, PsycInfo, Google Chrome and Cochrane) and bibliographies from related articles was performed from January 2002-January 2013 to identify the included studies. A quantitative systematic review without meta-analysis was conducted and the selected studies were critically evaluated to extract and summarize pertinent characteristics and outcomes. The literature search produced 29 quantitative research studies related to mobile phones and medication adherence. The studies were conducted for prevention purposes as well as management of acute and chronic illnesses. All of the studies used text messaging. Eighteen studies found significant improvement in medication adherence. While the majority of investigators found improvement in medication adherence, long-term studies characterized by rigorous research methodologies, appropriate statistical and economic analyses and the test of theory-based interventions are needed to determine the efficacy of mobile phones to influence medication adherence.

Finding myself: a theory on the maturation of spirituality and its influence on behavior during late adolescence.

This study employed a grounded theory research design to develop a theoretical model focused on the maturation of spirituality and its influence on behavior during late adolescence. Quantitative research studies have linked spirituality with decreased health-risk behaviors and increased health-promotion behaviors during late adolescence. Qualitative, theoretical data is proposed to discover the underlying reasons this relationship exists and increase the ability to apply this knowledge to practice. Twenty-one adolescents, age 16-21 years, were e-mail interviewed and transcripts analyzed using a conceptual lens of Blumer's symbolic interactionism. From this analysis, a theoretical model emerged with the core concept, finding myself that represents 5 core process concepts. Implications of this study illustrate that late adolescents are aware of their personal spiritual maturation as well as its influence on behavior. In addition, a distinction between the generic concept of spirituality, personal spirituality, and religion emerged.

Swedish immersion in the early years in Finland

Immersion education in Finland is a one-way (monolingual) early total Swedish programme for Finnish-speaking students. This immersion provision is offered at kindergarten level (ages 3–5), at preschool (age 6) and at primary levels (grades 1–9). Here, a brief synthesis of Finnish research studies on the early years in Swedish immersion is first provided, reviewing results from a number of quantitative and qualitative research studies. In order to present a comprehensive view of the Finnish context, both the kindergarten and preschool environments are analysed as contexts for early second-language learning and teaching. The second part of this article presents results from a recent Finnish study of immersion in kindergarten, where analyses of dialogue sequences make it possible to examine in depth how immersion children in Finland learn their new language in everyday situations within immersion settings. Examples illustrate the importance of the educator's explicit verbalisations of every joint activity and shared context. When the educator continuously puts into words the actions jointly focused upon by child and adult, she provides meaningful L2 input and, at the same time, promotes children's understanding of daily activities. The excerpts also show developments in children's emerging L2 utterances, from recycled Swedish language items to spontaneous L2 use.

Mood and anxiety problems in perinatal Indigenous women in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and the United States: A critical review of the literature

We conducted a review of research literature related to anxiety, depression, and mood problems in Indigenous women in Canada, the United States (including Hawaii), Australia, and New Zealand. Quantitative and qualitative research studies published between 1980 and March 2010 were reviewed. The initial search revealed 396 potential documents, and after being checked for relevance by two researchers, data were extracted from 16 quantitative studies, one qualitative research article, and one dissertation. Depression is a common problem in Indigenous pregnant and postpartum women; however, the prevalence and correlates of anxiety and mood disorders are understudied. The review identified four key areas where further research is needed: (a) longitudinal, population-based studies; (b) further validation and modification of appropriate screening tools; (c) exploration of cultural diversity and meaning of the lived experiences of antenatal and postpartum depression, anxiety, and mood disorders; and (d) development of evidence-informed practices for researchers and practitioners through collaborations with Aboriginal communities to better understand and improve mental health of women of childbearing age.

Selecting the most appropriate inferential statistical test for your quantitative research study

To discuss the issues and processes relating to the selection of the most appropriate statistical test. A review of the basic research concepts together with a number of clinical scenarios is used to illustrate this. Quantitative nursing research generally features the use of empirical data which necessitates the selection of both descriptive and statistical tests. Different types of research questions can be answered by different types of research designs, which in turn need to be matched to a specific statistical test(s). Discursive paper. This paper discusses the issues relating to the selection of the most appropriate statistical test and makes some recommendations as to how these might be dealt with. When conducting empirical quantitative studies, a number of key issues need to be considered. Considerations for selecting the most appropriate statistical tests are discussed and flow charts provided to facilitate this process. When nursing clinicians and researchers conduct quantitative research studies, it is crucial that the most appropriate statistical test is selected to enable valid conclusions to be made.

Developing an environmental corporate reputation on the internet

PurposeThis paper aims to investigate the specific challenges and success factors faced by companies which develop their environmental corporate reputation using an online communication strategy.Design/methodology/approachThe study proposes a research framework positioned to an intermediary level between quantitative research and case studies. The exploratory methodology adopted in this study was based on a triangulation approach, by comparing and analysing primary data obtained from three different sources: observations of corporate websites, data provided by the communication managers of five investigated firms, and the answers obtained from a sample of 84 environmentally‐conscious consumers.FindingsThe findings indicate the importance of a direct correspondence between the strategic objectives defined by the firm, the communication strategy, and the implemented operational elements. However, as a result of opportunistic environmental claims made by other firms in the past, customers require not only clear and updated online information, but also objective proofs about the trustworthiness of the company's messages and actions.Research limitations/implicationsThe sample of investigated firms is too small to allow a valid generalisation of results. On the other hand, the primary data was collected in only one time instance, although the process of corporate image change and reputation building is continuous and dynamic.Originality/valuePrevious research focused almost exclusively on corporate environmental reporting of large companies. Adopting an exploratory approach, this paper analyses the communication strategies designed and implemented by five medium‐sized French firms, as well as their impact on customers’ perceptions.

Single mothers’ self‐assessment of health: a systematic exploration of the literature

This study aimed to explore single mothers' self-assessed level of health status compared to partnered mothers and the relevant factors associated with it. The number of single-mother families is increasing worldwide. A large body of international research reveals that single mothers experience poorer physical and mental health than their married counterparts. An important contributory factor for this health disparity appears to be socio-economic disadvantage. A systematic search of the literature was conducted using the keywords 'lone' or 'single' and 'mother*' or 'parent*' or 'family structure' in combination with 'health'. EMBASE, CINAHL, COCHRANE and PUBMED databases were searched for quantitative research studies published in the past decade. Eleven quantitative research articles with self-assessment of health status in single mothers were identified. Single mothers report lower levels of health status compared to partnered mothers. These inequalities appear to be associated with financial hardship and lack of social support. Both these factors increase single mothers' susceptibility to stress and illness. Despite the study limitations (e.g. results based mainly on secondary data from household surveys), it provides evidence that single motherhood places women in an adverse social position that is associated with prolonged stress mainly due to unemployment, economic hardship and social exclusion, which affects negatively their health status. These findings can be seen as a challenge for health professionals, especially those working in the community sector and policy makers too, to establish supportive measures for this vulnerable group focused on socio-economic factors.

Cardiovascular Risk Factors Among Prisoners

Incarceration is characterized by inequalities in disease burden and an increased risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD). The aim of this review was to critique published empirical research studies on cardiovascular risk factors among prisoners and to summarize and synthesize current knowledge and findings across these studies. An integrative review of the studies was conducted. Cooper's five stage method was used as a framework to guide data collection, analysis, and synthesis. Quality appraisal of retrieved studies was done using a combined evaluation tool for quantitative research studies and a checklist. The following databases were searched: CINAHL, MEDLINE, PubMed, Cochrane, Indigenous Studies Portal (iPortal), Native Health Database, Criminal Justice Abstracts, and PsychInfo using keywords. Inclusion criteria were used to select published papers. A total of 12 studies that met the inclusion criteria were identified and analyzed. Hypertension, among other CVD risk factors such as smoking, physical inactivity and obesity, was one of the three most common CVD risk factors found in prisoners. Women and young offenders had a higher prevalence of hypercholesterolemia. Identifying prevalent risks factors among prisoners might influence the development of CVD prevention strategies that are specifically directed to at risk prisoners.

Clinical outcomes: the impact of patient-centered care

An extensive body of literature advocating a "patient-centered" approach to medical care has emerged over the past three decades. This approach is now a mainstream trend in healthcare. Despite its popularity, there remains little consensus regarding the content or definition of patient-centered care. Various quantitative and qualitative research studies have extracted core meanings from "doctor-patient relationship" perspectives and investigated the relationships of these meanings with patient satisfaction, compliance with health promoting behavior, and health status. Mead and Bower's review of the conceptual and empirical literature represented the first attempt to develop a model of the doctor-patient relationship that considered the multiple aspects embraced by the "patient-centered" approach. However, any interpretation of the "patient-centered" concept that fails to consider the perspective of nursing is likely incomplete, as patient-centered care is the essence of nursing. This paper reviewed the concept of "patient-centered care", conducted a systematic review of randomized control trials to explore the effectiveness of patient-centered care, and integrated nursing-related studies that focused on patient-centered care. Our search covered articles published through the end of February 2011 in the Cochrane Controlled Trials Register, JBI, MEDLINE, CINAHL, Pubmed, ProQuest, PsycInfo, and CEPS, with 13 relevant articles identified. The majority of trials addressed by these studies demonstrated a positive "patient-centered care" effect on self-care knowledge and skills but a limited/insignificant effect on disease improvement. The reviewed studies used traditional definitions of "patient-centered care" that were inconsistent with the concepts defined by Mead and Bower. Heterogeneities exist between reviewed studies and the lack of related research in Taiwan. We thus integrated outcome indicators related to "patient-centered care". This study may be referenced by nursing research and clinical care professionals responsible to improve and integrate medical care quality.

Understanding Culture through Personality: From the World of a Thai University

This quantitative research studies the personality of Mahasarakham University students in order to prepare instruction in the subjects relating to personality and social etiquette for leadership in the University's revised curriculum, and to promote personality and identity development in accordance with Mahasarakham University's policy on desirable characteristics of graduated students. The data was collected using a self-report questionnaire completed by years 1-5 students from 18 faculties in 96 majors totaling 6117 persons. This study was carried out using Self theory (Roger, 1959), Maslow's theory, and the conceptual framework of students’ personality development policy as related to Thai culture and behavior according to Ruth Benedict's (1970) concept. The research findings were discussed in terms of the students’ physical, intellectual and emotional personalities. The research found that the mean of all three aspects was at the high level. The physical, intellectual, and emotional readiness of the students was expressed as personalities, and the physical and emotional personalities were relevant and in accordance with each other. Students expressed themselves in terms of intellect and, when comparing male and female students’ opinions, it was found that the intellectual and emotional personalities of male students were at a higher level, whereas female students had a higher level of physical personality.

Overexcitabilities and Giftedness Research

There has been an increase in publications of quantitative research studies investigating overexcitabilities (OEs) and giftedness. On one hand, increased interest in OEs bodes well for the dissemination of Dabrowski’s theory of positive disintegration (TPD), from which OEs are derived. On the other hand, recent research raises concerns regarding the assumptions underlying the research methods in common use. This article argues that the assumptions regarding OEs and their relationship to giftedness evident in recent research run counter to Dabrowskian theorizing. Due to the uniqueness and coherence of TPD, the article concludes by noting the need for a paradigm shift when researchers investigate TPD concepts such as OE.

Determinants of skilled birth attendants for delivery in Nepal

This review is to explore the factors affecting the uptake of skilled birth attendants for delivery and the issues associated with women's role and choices of maternal health care service for delivery in Nepal. Literature was reviewed across the globe and discussed in a Nepalese context. Delivery by Skilled Birth Attendance serves as an indicator of progress towards reducing maternal mortality worldwide, the fifth Millennium Development Goal. Nepal has committed to reducing its maternal mortality by 75% by 2015 through ensuring accessibility to the availability and utilisation of skilled care at every birth. The literature suggests that several socio-economic, cultural and religious factors play a significant role in the use of Skilled Birth Attendance for delivery in Nepal. Availability of transportation and distance to the health facility; poor infrastructure and lack of services; availability and accessibility of the services; cost and convenience; staff shortages and attitudes; gender inequality; status of women in society; women's involvement in decision making; and women's autonomy and place of residence are significant contributing factors for uptake of Skilled Birth Attendance for delivery in Nepal. The review found more quantitative research studies exploring the determinants of utilisation of the maternal health services during pregnancy in Nepal than qualitative studies. Findings of quantitative research show that different social demographic, economic, socio-cultural and religious factors are responsible for the utilisation of maternal health services but very few studies discussed how and why these factors are responsible for utilisation of skilled birth attendants in pregnancy. It is suggested that there is need for more qualitative research to explore the women's role and choice regarding use of skilled birth attendants services and to find out how and why these factors are responsible for utilisation of skilled birth attendants for delivery. Qualitative research will help further exploration of the issues and contribute to improvement of maternal health services.

Effect of Indian Music on Level of Death Anxiety among Institutionalized Old Age Persons

Death anxiety refers to the fear and apprehension of one's own death. It is the neurotic fears of loss the self which in intense state parallels feelings of helplessness and depression. In old age, people must confront the possibility of their own death as well as the death of loved ones. Death most commonly occurs in later years (Mimrot, 2011). Research references indicated that institutionalized old age person frequently suffers a loss of individuality and diminish selfworth. Loss of self worth can lead to depression, which the most common psychological problem is found in the institutionalized elderly population (Cunningham & Brrokband, 1988,Papaliaet al., 1996) Privacy is at a premium in nursing homes. Residents are under continual supervision by staff but paradoxically many are deprived of meaningful social contact and feel isolated. In addition, the ability to make personal choices is often several limited in nursing homes. Lack of choice is one component of the dehumanization often felt by elderly people living in nursing homes (Weiner et al., 1987). The good resident is one who conforms to the rules and does not make too many demands. People who are elderly and confined to nursing homes frequently suffer a loss of individuality and diminished selfworth (Hilliard, 2005). Finally, there is the belief that a nursing home is a place to wait for death. It is so wonder that many of the residents feel depressed, isolated and socially aloof from one another and from the staff. (William, 1995)Music therapists use methods suchas song writing, improvisation, guided imagery and music, lyric analysis, singing, instrument playing and music therapy relaxation techniques to treat the many needs of patients and families receiving care. Needs often treated by music therapists in end-of-life care include the social e.g. isolation, loneliness, boredom (Clements, 2003 & Cunliffe, 2003), emotional e.g. depression, anxiety, anger, fear, frustration (O'Callaghan 1993, 1996), cognitive e.g. neurological impairments, disorientation, confusion (Salmon 1995 & Hilliard 2003), physical e.g. pain, shortness of breath (Krout, 2001) and spiritual e.g. lack of spiritual connection, need for spiritually-based rituals (Magill 2001 & Mandel 1993). Music therapy has been used successfully formany years for rehabilitation programs for the elderly especially for those persons confined to institutionalized homes. It promotes social interaction, improves reality orientation, improves self esteem, promotes relaxation and reduces stress, anxiety (Aldridge & Aldridge 1992). Literature supporting the use of music therapy in old age care is growing. However, the number of quantitative research studies investigating the use of music therapy in death anxiety, is limited.Keeping these views, the present research project was to examine the effectiveness of music therapy in reducing death anxiety for institutionalized elderly persons.ProblemIn the light of above review and views, an attempt is made to find out an impact of Indian Music on level of death anxiety among institutionalized old age persons.Hypothesis of the studyLevel of depression will be managed among institutionalized old age persons through Indian Music. This hypothesis is based on Clements, 2004, Mimrot, 2011, Thompson and Grocke, 2007 studies.DesignIt is a quasi-experimental research in which musical package is worked as Independent Variable and perception of death anxiety is Dependent Variable. Pre and post design was used to find out how musical package manages perception of death anxiety among institutionalized old age persons. 90 days musical package for 45 minutes duration was presented to a group of old age persons twice a day i.e., one session in morning (before breakfast) and another is in evening (before dinner) at their old age home only. Those old age persons, who were staying from more than one year in old age home, were selected and none of them was having any Psychiatric and Psychological problem. …

E-Mentoring: An Innovative Twist to Traditional Mentoring

Many organizations have established and implemented traditional mentoring programs. Both qualitative and quantitative research studies have found that successful mentoring programs enhance productivity, job satisfaction and may ultimately lead to protege advancement. Traditional methods of mentoring are created through the means of one on one relationships established between the mentor and the protege. E-mentoring through the use of synchronous and asynchronous computer-mediated communication is a new means for establishing mentor protege relationships by creating virtual teams. This paper seeks to compare and contrast traditional mentoring with e-mentoring and propose new innovative ways to use e-mentoring in an organizational setting.

Insights from a physiotherapist's lived experience of osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis (OA) of a hip joint, with subsequent total hip joint replacement surgery, is portrayed in the literature in terms of quantitative research studies, where the person living with the hip disappears in objective statistical analyses, or in qualitative studies where one person's story is fragmented within thematic findings. This phenomenological study of a physiotherapist's (Peter) lived experience of OA offers insights relevant to practice. In the initial stages of the disease, Peter was too close to ‘see’ the possibility of OA as a diagnosis. As the pain limited what he could do, he needed to reinvent ways of retaining his sense of ‘self’. The pain worsened; there was nothing that relieved it. The experience became one of endurance, leading to a moment when he decided the time had come to have surgery. Post-surgery, the journey of recovery was one of the feelings vulnerable. He wanted guidance and re-assurance. Paradoxically, recovery showed itself as ‘forgetting’ the body. The insights call for therapists to listen to the experience of clients and be alongside side them as they struggle with vulnerability. Sharing an understanding of the nature of the experience can bring confidence to clients.

Anxiety and pain in children undergoing elective surgical procedures: a systematic review.

Anxiety and pain are two significant problems experienced by children undergoing elective surgical procedures, which may lead to suboptimal postoperative outcomes. Previous studies have shown a correlation between perioperative anxiety and pain in children. This review aimed to present the best available evidence on the correlation between perioperative anxiety and pain in children undergoing elective surgical procedures, and to determine the relationship between children's demographics, their anxiety and pain level in the perioperative period. Participants were children aged between five to 18 years old who were scheduled for an elective surgical procedure in the hospital setting.No specific intervention was of interest. So long as the primary studies examined correlation of children's anxiety and pain in the perioperative period, they were considered for inclusion.This review focused on children's preoperative level of anxiety; children's postoperative level of anxiety; children's postoperative pain intensity; and/or children's postoperative behavioural changes.This review included quantitative research studies, such as randomised-controlled trials, cohort studies, and descriptive studies which addressed the correlation between perioperative anxiety and perioperative pain in children undergoing elective surgical procedures. A three-step search strategy was utilised in this review. The following databases were searched for articles published in English from the inception date of databases to December 2010: CINAHL, PubMed, Scopus, PsycINFO, Mednar, Trip Database, ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, Scirus ETD and Web of Science. Papers selected for retrieval were assessed independently by two reviewers for methodological quality prior to inclusion in the review using standardised critical appraisal tools from Joanna Briggs Institute. There were no disagreements between the two reviewers, so the third reviewer was not required. Data were extracted using the standardised data extraction tools: the Joanna Briggs Institute Meta-Analysis Statistics Assessment and Review Instrument (JBI-MAStARI) for randomised-controlled trials, cohort studies, and descriptive/case series. Since the ten included studies used various study designs and outcome measures for the levels of anxiety and pain, this made meta-analysis impossible and therefore the findings were summarised and presented in narrative form. This review included two randomised-controlled trials, two cohort studies, five observational descriptive studies and one descriptive survey study. Eight studies revealed that children who had higher levels of pre- and post-operative anxiety experienced a higher level of post-operative pain. Pearson correlation coefficients of these eight studies were reported in the findings, with coefficients ranging between r = 0.29 (p < 0.05) to r = 0.57 (p < 0.001). There is no conclusive evidence supporting the relationships of children's demographics characteristics (i.e. gender, age and past surgical experience) and their perioperative anxiety and pain. Children who had higher levels of pre- and post-operative anxiety experienced a higher level of post-operative pain. The review results inform healthcare providers of the role perioperative anxiety plays on paediatric postoperative pain.This evidence serves to generate implications for clinical practice and future studies in order to better manage children's perioperative anxiety and eventually improve their postoperative pain management. However, this review revealed insufficient evidence supporting the correlation between children's demographic data, namely gender, age and past surgical experience and their perioperative anxiety and pain. Children's perioperative anxiety should be routinely assessed prior to procedures in the clinical setting. This review also recommends that interventions be developed and implemented so as to reduce pain and anxiety for children during the perioperative period. Future studies are needed to examine the effectiveness of different interventions in reducing children's perioperative anxiety and pain, and to examine the relationship between anxiety and pain in other settings and countries. Future research should also be directed towards developing a reliable, shorter and practical anxiety assessment tool.

Identity and Personality Development for Desirable Characteristics of Mahasarakham University Graduate Students

This quantitative research studies the identity of students at Mahasarakham University in order to prepare instruction in the subjects relating to personality and social etiquette requirements for leadership in the University's revised curriculum. It also aims to promote personality and identity development in accordance with Mahasarakham University's policy on desirable characteristics of graduate students. Data were collected using a self-report questionnaire given to students in years 1-5 from 18 faculties in 96 majors, totalling 6,117 respondents. This study was carried out using student's personality development policy related to Thai culture and tradition. In addition to curriculum goals, Thai universities also have responsibility for setting policy goals for students' personality and social development. This is in contrast to western university traditions where personal and social values are a matter of individual choice. The research findings were discussed in terms of self-concept, self-understanding and self-awareness. In conclusion, when comparing the identities of male and female students, it was found that male students expressed their identity or individuality more often than female students, and it was noted that the only identity that male and female students shared in equal measures was that of self-concept.