Qing Research Articles

试论≪御制满蒙文鑑≫与≪蒙語類解≫的关系

This article attempts to demonstrate the relationship between qaγan-u bičigsen manǰu mongγol ügen-ü toli bičig and MONG Ŏ YU HAE from the perspectives of philology and linguistics. As one of the 18th century Mongolian textbooks of the Korean Translation Institute(Sa YŎK Won), the compilation style and inclusion of Mongolian words in MONG Ŏ YU HAE follow the characteristics of Qing Dynasty Mongolian dictionaries in many aspects. When conducting this study, scholars from South Korea and Japan also fully recognized the correlation between Mong Hak Sam SŎ and Qing Dynasty dictionaries. They put forward their own views on the issue of “Mong Mun Kam” mentioned in the “Preface to the Reissue of the Three Books of Mongolian School” . Chinese scholars have a low level of attention to this type of literature, and there is a lack of research results. The research perspectives of previous scholars have mostly focused on the ontology research of 18th century Mongolian language reflected in Mongolian textbooks, without carefully demonstrating the relationship between Mongolian textbooks and Manchu literature. This article is a supplement to this aspect.

Chan, Garden, and Poetry: The Tidal Sounds in the Changshou Monastery Garden of Canton in the Qing Dynasty

The Caodong School (曹洞宗) advocates the integration of Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism (三教會通) and interprets Chan through the I Ching (以易釋禪). During the transition from the Ming to the Qing Dynasty, there was extensive interaction and mobility between the Ming loyalists (遺民) and Chan monks. This accelerated the secularization of monks and promoted the construction of temple gardens, which were expressed and preserved through literary Chan poetry. This study explores the relationship between Buddhist concepts and garden construction through a specific case, the Changshou Monastery Garden (長壽寺花園) in Canton (now Guangzhou) during the Qing Dynasty. This study examines how the Chan master Shilian Dashan 石濂大汕 (1633–1705), who journeyed to Dang Trong (Cochinchina 廣南) to spread Buddhist teachings, shaped the design and layout of the temple garden, reflecting Buddhist ideals and Caodong principles. This study analyzes the changes in landscape at the Changshou Monastery Garden, according to “the sound of tides” (潮音) from a Buddhist perspective. It also reveals how Dashan, as both a monk and a literati, blended Chan and Chinese philosophy in making the garden. The cultural resonance of tides within religious and literati traditions furnishes novel insights and prospects for the development of garden spaces.

The annotation and compilation of Shennong Classic of Materia Medica in the period of the Republic of China

A variety of books on the annotation and compilation of Shennong Classic of Materia Medica (Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing) appeared in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. In the period of the Republic of China at the beginning of the last century, a total of eight annotated and compiled books on Shennong Classic of Materia Medica were published. This paper discusses the authors of these books, their contents and their academic features. It was found that the research on Shennong Classic of Materia Medica in the period of the Republic of China was basically divided into two main sections: the continuation of reverence for classical texts with extensive commentary and the 'scientific' transformation of traditional materia medica in the context of Sino-Western medicine integration.

Medical related content in Macao Newsprint in the Late Qing Dynasty

Macao Newsprint, which was an important tool for Lin Zexu to get acquainted with foreign affairs, was the first translated newspaper in Chinese history. The translation and compilation of news information related to Western medicine in Macao Newsprint was an active attempt by Chinese people to open their eyes to Western medicine. The two pieces of news related to Western medicine in Macao Newsprint, which presented the medical ethics, medical skills and doctor-patient relationship in the Western medicine, are precious historical materials on the exchange of Chinese and Western medicine. The expressions in the two pieces of translated news in which the foreigners might have praised their own medicine had a certain influence on the medical views of the late Qing scholars represented by Lin Zexu, and thus had a positive impact on the dissemination of Western medicine in China.

A Study on the Revival and Abolition of the Imperial Examination System Based on the Response of Shanxi Common People (1894-1915)

In the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China, due to factors such as famine, conflict between religious believers, and collusion between officials and businessmen in Shanxi, common people accepted passively and resisted inwardly the abolition of imperial examinations and the rise of western-style schools. This article outlines the changing process of common people’s attitudes in Shanxi divided into three stages. In the early period, common people generally accepted the imperial examination system, while in the middle period, their attitudes towards the reform of the examination system and the promotion of new learning gradually diverged. In the later period, common people exhibited a clear polarization in their attitudes towards the abolition of the imperial examination system and the promotion of new learning. Through the analysis from a Western perspective, this article argues that the contradictory reactions of the common people are due to the cognitive dissonance in rural societies during institutional reforms. However, the internal motivations behind their actions and their attitudes were remain highly aligned.

The first translation on pediatrics: Er Ke Cuo Yao

Er Ke Cuo Yao(The Pediatric Summary) is the first monograph on pediatrics of Western medicine translated and introduced in the late Qing Dynasty. It occupies an important position in the history of the development of modern pediatrics and modern Western medicine in China. Edited by American missionary Mary Hannah Fulton and translated by Chinese Western medicine scholar Yin Duanmo, the book consists of 2 volumes and 14 books, including general discussion of pediatrics, diagnosis of pediatric diseases, and discussion on teething, throat diseases, gastrointestinal diseases, worms, liver diseases, abdominal epimesis, and new infectious diseases, etc. covering the diagnosis, treatment, maintenance and other knowledge of Western medical pediatrics. The source of Er Ke Cuo Yao is not yet available, but it may be a synthesis of various materials, and the translation uses paraphrasing, transliteration, and traditional Chinese medicine terminology, and the language is easy to understand. Er Ke Cuo Yao reflects the level of development of pediatrics in Western medicine in the early modern period, makes up for the lack of pediatrics knowledge of traditional Chinese medicine, and plays an active role in the diagnosis and treatment of common pediatric diseases, epidemiological diseases, surgical diseases, and malnutrition prevention.

Dialogues on the Theory of Reward for the Good and Retribution for the Evil during Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties

The theory of reward for the good and retribution for the evil (善恶报应) was one of the key issues in the dialogue between Catholicism and indigenous religions in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. Under the monotheistic framework, Catholicism advocates supernatural God for rewarding good and punishing evil, thus it had a more logical and rigorous theological arguments. It had exchanges and dialogues with Chinese native religions on the standards of good and evil, who has the rights to reward and punish, and the results of reward and retribution and so on. This article firstly analyzes the Confucian theory of stimulus-response between the heaven and human beings (天人感应). It secondly illustrates the view of the theories of reward for the good and retribution for the evil in Buddhism and Taoism. Then it discusses the Catholic views on rewarding good and punishing evil during late Ming and early Qing, and it also reviews the responses of the native religions in China to Catholic view of rewarding good and punishing evil. Finally, it summarizes the sameness and differences of the theories of reward for the good and retribution for the evil between Catholicism and Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism. As to the intentional to do goods, there were some commonalities between Catholicism and Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism in the movement of promoting good deeds during late Ming and early Qing. However, there were distinct in the perspective of the standards of good and evil, the subjects of retribution and the roles of individuals in retribution, which caused the conflicts between Catholicism and its opponents in China. The introduction of Catholic theory of reward for the good and retribution for the evil undoubtedly further enriched Chinese religious thoughts since the late Ming dynasty.

КУЛЬТУРНЫЕ КОНТАКТЫ МЕЖДУ РОССИЕЙ И КИТАЕМ НА ДАЛЬНЕВОСТОЧНЫХ ТЕРРИТОРИЯХ В XIX – НАЧАЛЕ XX в.

The paper analyzes the formation and development of cultural relations between Russia and China in the 19th – early 20th centuries in the Far Eastern territories. The issues of the origin of Russian-Chinese cultural interaction, the contact between Russian and Chinese cultures, as well as the peculiarities of contacts between the two ethnic groups are covered. The work uses a historical-chronological research method, which made it possible to trace the formation and development of contacts in the field of culture between the two countries in the Far Eastern border region in the mid-19th – early 20th centuries (from the signing of the Aigun and Beijing treaties to the October Revolution of 1917), as well as a systematic approach, the use of which led to the consideration of cultural ties as a component of the overall system of Russian-Chinese relations at the interstate and interregional levels. Materials in Chinese in the author's translation were introduced into scientific circulation. When studying cultural contacts between the two countries, the concept of sociocultural interaction developed by N.A. Samoilov was applied, which made it possible to analyze the features of relations between the two countries in the field of culture and highlight the forms of interaction. According to the authors, the development of mutual contacts in the field of culture was determined by foreign policy and socio-economic conditions, significant transformations in the political, economic and cultural spheres that took place in the mid-19th – early 20th centuries in the Russian state and the Qing Empire, as well as the meeting of Chinese migration and Russian colonization flows in the Russian Far Eastern borderland. In general, Russian-Chinese sociocultural interaction during the period under study went through several stages, during which the Russian and Chinese peoples mutually recognized each other and learned to interact. At the same time, in the Far Eastern territories at the turn of the century, a contact zone of relations between two ethnic groups was formed, a special environment of Russian-Chinese interaction was formed, and at the same time, the difference between the two cultures and the impossibility of their mixing and mutual assimilation became increasingly obvious.

Southwest University of Political Science and Law

Chinese wedding culture has a long history and rich tradition. In its development, it went through two stages and from traditional to modern. This process is a sign of social evolution and progress. The author analyzes the evolution of traditional Chinese wedding rites and customs in six representative periods: the Qing (221–207 BC) and Han (206 BC — 220 AD) dynasties; the Tang (618–907) and Song (960–1279) dynasties; the Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1616–1911) dynasties; Republic of China (1912–1949); the time after establishing the People’s Republic of China until the Cultural Revolution (1949–1976), as well as after the start of the reform and opening-up policy (since 1978) to the present days.

Spatial utilization of historical topographic map and its application in land reconstruction of ancient Chinese urban land use

The historical topographic map preserves rich geographic information and can provide direct assistance for the reconstruction of various geographic elements. Based on the historical data of cities throughout the Qing Dynasty, the land use scale data of cities across the country was obtained using GIS and urban perimeter conversion models. This study combines city information and city circumference records from the historical maps and archives of the late Qing Dynasty to quantitatively reconstruct the use patterns of ancient China’s urban land at a spatial resolution of 1° × 1°. Uncertainty analysis of the reconstruction results was conducted using modern remote sensing image data as the validation data set. The results showed the following. (1) During the late Qing Dynasty, the total area of urban land in the various provinces and regions was 1456.015 km2. The maximum value was 208.691 km2 in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei, the minimum value was 1.713 km2 in Qinghai, and the average value was 56.001 km2. (2) The results of grid reconstruction show that among the 398 grids with urban land distribution, the maximum value is 64.099 km2/grid, the minimum value is 0.013 km2/grid, and the average value is 3.658 km2/grid. (3) Of all the grids with urban land, the urban land grid to the west of the Hu Line accounts for 12.5% and the east to 87.5%. (4) During the late Qing Dynasty, urban land use in China was primarily concentrated in agriculturally developed areas such as the North China Plain, the Central Plains, Jiangnan, and the Sichuan-Chongqing region. (6) The results of a kernel density estimation showed that there were obviously three core areas of urban land agglomeration in China during the late Qing Dynasty: the North China Plain-Central Plains, the Jiangsu-Shanghai-Zhejiang-Anhui area, and the Sichuan-Chongqing urban core area. This study provides basic data for urban land use during historical periods and provides a basis for the quantitative reconstruction of relevant urban land data for historical archives.

The Transition to Publicization of Chenghuang Temple and the Rise of Affiliated Gardens in Shanghai During the Qing Dynasty

The Transition to Publicization of Chenghuang Temple and the Rise of Affiliated Gardens in Shanghai During the Qing Dynasty

The Seventh Dalai Lama's residence in Kham: Gartar Monastery interactions with indigenous chiefs and the Qing court

Abstract The Seventh Dalai Lama's residence at Gartar Monastery, which began in 1730, greatly affected the relationship between the Kham region and the Tibetan government as well as the Qing court's control over Kham. The Dalai Lama's interactions with various indigenous leaders, local monasteries, monks and lay people increased the influence of the Geluk school in Kham, and also inspired their support for the Dalai Lama. Measures adopted by the Qing court to protect the Dalai Lama, such as stationing troops and inspecting checkpoints, also strengthened Qing control of Kham. After the Dalai Lama left for Tibet in 1735, Gartar Monastery continued to serve as a religious and cultural centre of northern Kham, with the purpose of “civilizing” and “enlightening” the neighbouring regions that were far away from the political centre. Successive abbots of Gartar Monastery – right up to 1920 – came from Drepung Monastery in Lhasa; they and the Gartar monks influenced, interfered with and controlled the local affairs of Gartar and other regions in Kham. In particular, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Gartar Monastery, together with the Tibetan commissioner in Nyarong, was able to assist in the Tibetan government's efforts to extend its sphere of influence in Kham.

The Spatial Relationship between Cities and Mountains in Jiangnan Region in the Qing Dynasty Based on Historical Texts

The Jiangnan region of China boasts a superior natural environment, and the combination of cities and mountains that form its historical landscape give it unique attributes. Local chronicles serve as an abundant source of information for visualizing this historic environment. This study aims to achieve two objectives: (1) to use digital humanities methods to process textual information in local chronicles, and (2) to visualize the historical relationships formed by the mountains and cities. In this study, we chose Suzhou, Zhenjiang, Jiaxing, Huzhou, and Songjiang in the Jiangnan region during the Qing Dynasty as our research sites. Through textual analysis and data visualization, we classified and reconstructed the historical spatial patterns of cities and mountains. As a result, our study provides a reproduction of the past spatial relationship between cities and mountains in the Jiangnan region during the Qing Dynasty. The research findings indicate that natural mountains play multiple roles in shaping the historical urban environment, particularly in terms of cultural images, notably the symbolic function they hold. The preservation of the urban natural environment, as seen through the vantage point of the historical landscape, is a critical component in contemporary urban development. The digital humanities methodologies utilized within this article can be extended to other cultural heritage research, based on pre-existing local historical literature.

Web-based diagnostic platform for microorganism-induced deterioration on paper-based cultural relics with iterative training from human feedback

PurposePaper-based artifacts hold significant cultural and social values. However, paper is intrinsically fragile to microorganisms, such as mold, due to its cellulose composition, which can serve as a microorganisms’ nutrient source. Mold not only can damage papers’ structural integrity and pose significant challenges to conservation works but also may subject individuals attending the contaminated artifacts to health risks. Current approaches for strain identification usually require extensive training, prolonged time for analysis, expensive operation costs, and higher risks of secondary damage due to sampling. Thus, in current conservation practices with mold-contaminated artifacts, little pre-screening or strain identification was performed before mold removal, and the cleaning techniques are usually broad-spectrum rather than strain-specific. With deep learning showing promising applications across various domains, this study investigated the feasibility of using a convolutional neural network (CNN) for fast in-situ recognition and classification of mold on paper.MethodsMolds were first non-invasively sampled from ancient Xuan Paper-based Chinese books from the Qing and Ming dynasties. Strains were identified using molecular biology methods and the four most prevalent strains were inoculated on Xuan paper to create mockups for image collection. Microscopic images of the molds as well as their stains situated on paper were collected using a compound microscope and commercial microscope lens for cell phone cameras, which were then used for training CNN models with a transfer learning scheme to perform the classification of mold. To enable involvement and contribution from the research community, a web interface that actuates the process while providing interactive features for users to learn about the information of the classified strain was constructed. Moreover, a feedback functionality in the web interface was embedded for catching potential classification errors, adding additional training images, or introducing new strains, all to refine the generalizability and robustness of the model.Results & ConclusionIn the study, we have constructed a suite of high-confidence classification CNN models for the diagnostic process for mold contamination in conservation. At the same time, a web interface was constructed that allows recurrently refining the model with human feedback through engaging the research community. Overall, the proposed framework opens new avenues for effective and timely identification of mold, thus enabling proactive and targeted mold remediation strategies in conservation.

The Development Process of Wushu Under the Influence of Wuju Selection System

Wuju, historically known as Wuke, was began in Tang Dynasty, the second year when Wu Zetian became empress. It was developed in successive dynasties. However, with the invasions of Western colonists in 19<sup>th</sup> century, the traditional martial arts were clearly no longer suitable for the needs of modern warfare, finally, it was abolished in the 27th year of Guangxu in Qing Dynasty. The abolition of Wuju system caused a fierce debate in the imperial court. Although there is still little research on the influence of Wuju to the development of martial arts in various dynasties, as the earliest main way to select martial arts talents, it has existed for more than 1,200 years in Chinese history and has improved the selection criteria for talents that are adept with both the pen and the sword. Wuju in Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties, military martial arts and folk martial arts are the earliest martial arts system in China. The rise and fall, as well as combination of Wuju and martial arts have a profound impact on the history of martial arts. Therefore, the paper tries to explore to the development process of martial arts by explaining the five stages of Wuju: rise, development, imprisonment, prosperity and defeat, then provides a theoretical basis for future scientific research on martial arts.

Some problems of research of the Yuan Dynasty copper red enamel porcelain (you’li-hong)

In the scholarly exploration of Chinese ceramic history, the Yuan Dynasty emerges as a pivotal era, distinguished by its remarkable advancements in porcelain artistry, culminating in the mastery of porcelain craft. This period is notably marked by the emergence and refinement of underglaze red porcelain, a quintessential embodiment of Yuan ceramic excellence. The inception of underglaze red porcelain, a technique entailing the application of copper-containing colorant to porcelain before overlaying it with a transparent glaze and firing at temperatures exceeding 1350°C in a reducing kiln atmosphere, is historically attributed to the Yuan Dynasty. This technique, which flourished subsequently during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, represents a significant evolution in ceramic art. Each Chinese dynasty contributed uniquely to the ceramic arts, with the Yuan Dynasty particularly enhancing the underglaze red porcelain technique during its middle and late periods, as evidenced by the sophisticated coloration in surviving artifacts. This study aims to thoroughly examine the underglaze red porcelain of the Yuan Dynasty, highlighting its artistic uniqueness and exceptional craftsmanship. The paper commences with an overview of the Yuan Dynasty’s historical context—its political, economic, and cultural landscape—setting the stage for a deeper understanding of the underglaze red porcelain’s development. This is followed by an exploration of the porcelain’s creation process, including material selection and firing methods, to underscore the intricacies of its craftsmanship. Furthermore, a detailed analysis of the artistic and decorative elements of the underglaze red porcelain will be undertaken, focusing on aspects such as form, design motifs, and glaze hues, to unpack its stylistic and aesthetic dimensions. The culmination of this paper will be an evaluation of the historical significance and artistic merit of the Yuan Dynasty’s underglaze red porcelain, offering insights into its enduring legacy and influence on subsequent ceramic traditions. Through this comprehensive investigation, the study not only enriches our understanding of the Yuan Dynasty’s ceramic artistry but also underscores the importance of preserving and promoting traditional Chinese ceramic heritage. Additionally, it provides a foundation for further scholarly inquiry and conservation efforts in the realm of ancient Chinese ceramics.

Determination of the temporal–spatial distribution patterns of ancient heritage sites in China and their influencing factors via GIS

In this paper, we analysed the temporal and spatial distributions of ancient archaeological sites in China as well as their influencing factors. Our aim was to reveal the developmental trajectory of Chinese civilisation and to explore the natural and cultural factors affecting human distribution, with the goal of providing insights for the conservation and development of ancient relics. We employed spatial analysis methods using ArcGIS 10.8 software, such as kernel density analysis and trend surface analysis, to analyse 1194 historical ancient sites listed in the National Cultural Relics Protection Units of China. The research findings are as follows: (1) the distribution of ancient sites demonstrates an agglomerative spatial pattern. The nearest neighbour index (R < 1) for sites from various historical periods indicates an agglomerative spatial distribution of ancient sites across historical periods, with the clustering degree being relatively poor for sites from the Wei-Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties and in the Ming and Qing periods. The regions with a concentration of ancient sites are the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River and Yellow River Basins. Furthermore, there is a higher abundance of ancient sites in the southeastern region than in the northwestern region. (2) The distribution of ancient sites in different historical periods also exhibits an imbalance, with an overall decreasing trend in the number of ancient sites in China. Notably, more ancient sites were found for the prehistoric and pre-Qin periods. The temporal trend of ancient sites during historical periods follows a trajectory from northeast to northwest, northeast to southwest, etc. (3) The temporal and spatial distributions of ancient sites are influenced by multiple factors, including social development, the natural environment, geographical elements, and socioeconomic and political factors. Finally, based on an understanding of the spatiotemporal distribution pattern of ancient sites and the factors that influence this pattern, recommendations for conservation and development can be proposed and supported by modern technological methods, with the aim of offering insights for the protection and sustainable development of heritage sites.

Analysis of the Fate of Literati in Qing Dynasty Who did not Meet the Imperial Examination: Life Dilemma and Spiritual Pursuit

The Qing Dynasty was the last period of Chinese feudal society, during which the imperial examination system played an important role. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the fate of literati who failed to pass the imperial examination in Qing Dynasty, focusing on the analysis of their life difficulties and the spiritual realm they pursued. Firstly, it introduces the historical background and structure of the imperial examination system in Qing Dynasty, and its influence on social mobility and literati status. It then discusses the economic challenges, career opportunities limitations and psychological difficulties faced by literati who failed to pass the exam. At the same time, it analyzes how these literati seek spiritual satisfaction and contribution by cultivating personal interest, engaging in literary and artistic creation, and participating in knowledge exchange and cultural activities. Through case studies of well-known literati who failed the exam, their life paths, dilemmas, and achievements are explored, as well as their philosophical and spiritual legacies. Finally, compare with the literati who passed the examination, reflect on the diversity of literati life in Qing Dynasty. The purpose of this study is to provide a new perspective for understanding the fate of literati in Qing Dynasty, and to provide inspiration and suggestions for future research.

A Brief Analysis of the Creative Style and Causes of opera "Bathe Moon"

It is an accepted fact that the peak of Chinese opera creation is mostly around the "Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties". In the opera involving the "moon worship", it is found that in the creation content of these three generations, the description of "sacrifice" and "blessing" does not reach the exaggerated "batch", but the quantity is also considerable. This can not help but produce two questions, why in the period of autocratic prosperity, such a religious story plot will be loved by most opera writers for a time? Why does the creation presented by the yue u present this kind of "simple and complicated" creation style? In order to uncover the causes of this phenomenon, we need to return to the context of The Times and culture at that time for comprehensive exploration.

Lost in Luxury: Climate Change and Silk Consumption in Mid-Qing China (1735–1840 CE)

A quantitative approach has been promoted to understand the history of climate and society. Statistical research on luxurious expenses under climate change in past societies remains insufficient, however. Hence, this study statistically examined the association between climate change and the imperial court’s luxury expenses on silk products in mid-Qing China (1735–1840 CE) by including major ecological–social–economic stresses. Results indicated that the Qing imperial court’s silk consumption increased under favorable climatic conditions and a flourishing agrarian economy, and vice versa. Natural disasters and social crises hardly affected the Qing imperial court’s silk consumption, however, suggesting its limited support and inactive attitude toward ecological–social–economic stresses. Such an institutional weakness might have increased social vulnerability, which could have led to Qing China’s decline since the eighteenth century. The study serves as the first attempt to reveal a long-term historical climate–luxury linkage and further provides a supplementary explanation of the economic decline from the perspective of the history of climate and society. Based on past lessons, this study emphasizes institutional activeness to tackle upcoming climate change challenges.