Proton Displacement Damage Research Articles

Research on proton displacement damage effects in charge-domain accumulation type TDI CMOS image sensors

TDI CMOS image sensors are the most widely used photodetectors in space earth observation and multispectral imaging. The displacement damage caused by high-energy proton irradiation in the space environment leads to the continuous degradation of TDI CMOS image sensor parameters, seriously affecting its performance, reliability, and service life. This paper focuses on a space-based TDI CMOS image sensor chip and carries out 3 MeV proton irradiation tests and post-irradiation annealing tests to obtain the change rules of optical and electrical parameters. The degradation mechanism of sensitive parameters of TDI CMOS image sensors caused by proton irradiation is analyzed, and the sensitive region of proton displacement damage are discussed. The study demonstrates that after proton irradiation, the parameters especially full well capacity and temporal dark noise of the device degrade less, with small sensitivity to proton irradiation. However, the dark current, CTE, and pixel column FPN significantly degrade, and the degree of degradation is linearly related to the proton irradiation dose. In addition, the test also obtained the short-term and long-term annealing changes of sensitive parameters after proton irradiation of TDI CMOS image sensors, providing scientific advice for TDI CMOS image sensors space proton radiation effect tests and evaluations. The research results of this paper provide important references for the evaluation of radiation effects, on-orbit performance estimation, and radiation resistance reinforcement of space-based TDI CMOS image sensors.

Effect of Proton Irradiation on Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes

The effects of proton irradiation on CMOS Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes (SPADs) are investigated in this article. The I–V characteristics, dark count rate (DCR), and photon detection probability (PDP) of the CMOS SPADs were measured under 30 MeV and 52 MeV proton irradiations. Two types of SPAD, with and without shallow trench isolation (STI), were designed. According to the experimental results, the leakage current, breakdown voltage, and PDP did not change after irradiation at a DDD of 2.82 × 108 MeV/g, but the DCR increased significantly at five different higher voltages. The DCR increased by 506 cps at an excess voltage of 2 V and 10,846 cps at 10 V after 30 MeV proton irradiation. A γ irradiation was conducted with a TID of 10 krad (Si). The DCR after the γ irradiation increased from 256 cps to 336 cps at an excess voltage of 10 V. The comparison of the DCR after proton and γ-ray irradiation with two structures of SPAD indicates that the major increase in the DCR was due to the depletion region defects caused by proton displacement damage rather than the Si-SiO2 interface trap generated by ionization.

Study of Single-Event Effects Influenced by Displacement Damage Effects under Proton Irradiation in Static Random-Access Memory

Static random-access memory (SRAM), a pivotal component in integrated circuits, finds extensive applications and remains a focal point in the global research on single-event effects (SEEs). Prolonged exposure to irradiation, particularly the displacement damage effect (DD) induced by high-energy protons, poses a substantial threat to the performance of electronic devices. Additionally, the impact of proton displacement damage effects on the performance of a six-transistor SRAM with an asymmetric structure is not well understood. In this paper, we conducted an analysis of the impact and regularities of DD on the upset cross-sections of SRAM and simulated the single-event upset (SEU) characteristics of SRAM using the Monte Carlo method. The research findings reveal an overall increasing trend in upset cross-sections with the augmentation of proton energy. Notably, the effect of proton irradiation on the SEU cross-section is related to the storage state of SRAM. Due to the asymmetry in the distribution of sensitive regions during the storage of “0” and “1”, the impact of DD in the two initial states is not uniform. These findings can be used to identify the causes of SEU in memory devices.

FAINTSTAR: an intelligent single-chip sensor head for star trackers—prototype results

Since 2003 the European Space Agency’s roadmap for star tracker CMOS APS (active pixel) image sensors has included developments to integrate significant logic functionality with the pixel array, aiming at an imaging system-on-chip. FaintStar (FS) will be the first commercially available product resulting from these activities. FaintStar is being developed by ams Sensors Belgium (formerly CMOSIS) in two phases. Phase 1 served to specify, design, manufacture, and characterise a prototype chip, informally named FaintStar1 (FS1), the subject of this paper. FaintStar is a one megapixel image sensor with 10 µm pixels and rolling shutter. All interactions with the user are over a single 80 Mb/s SpaceWire link. FaintStar offers various readout modes (full frame, windowed, windowed with dual rolling shutter, etc.). The chip has ‘pixels-to-centroids’ processing, including transfer curve linearisation, bad pixel replacement, background image estimation and suppression, spike filtering, bright object extraction, and photometric barycentre calculation. The algorithms used are generic, i.e., non-reliant on third-party IP, yet highly user-configurable. Data-compressed or raw image output is also supported. The device has been developed for star trackers mainly, although applications such as high-accuracy sun sensing, and navigation, rendezvous, or rover cameras are also served. The prototype chip exceeds its expectations. This article starts with an overview of the FS1 design and reports on the Phase 1 characterisation results, including electro-optical performance, proton displacement damage, total dose, and single event radiation effects. Started end of 2017, the project’s Phase 2 entails minor design refinements, creating FaintStar2 (FS2), its manufacturing, and then a formal evaluation campaign. After this, the sensor will be offered as a commercial off-the-shelf product.

Analysis of proton and γ-ray radiation effects on CMOS active pixel sensors**Project supported the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 11675259), the West Light Foundation of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (Grant Nos. XBBS201316, 2016-QNXZ-B-2, and 2016-QNXZ-B-8), and Young Talent Training Project of Science and Technology, Xinjiang, China (Grant No. qn2015yx035).

Radiation effects on complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) active pixel sensors (APS) induced by proton and γ-ray are presented. The samples are manufactured with the standards of CMOS technology. Two samples have been irradiated un-biased by 23 MeV protons with fluences of and , respectively, while another sample has been exposed un-biased to 65 krad(Si) 60Co γ-ray. The influences of radiation on the dark current, fixed-pattern noise under illumination, quantum efficiency, and conversion gain of the samples are investigated. The dark current, which increases drastically, is obtained by the theory based on thermal generation and the trap induced upon the irradiation. Both γ-ray and proton irradiation increase the non-uniformity of the signal, but the non-uniformity induced by protons is even worse. The degradation mechanisms of CMOS APS image sensors are analyzed, especially for the interaction induced by proton displacement damage and total ion dose (TID) damage.

Proton radiation effect on performance of InAs/GaSb complementary barrier infrared detector

In this work, we investigated the effect of proton irradiation on the performance of long wavelength infrared InAs/GaSb photodiodes (λc = 10.2 μm), based on the complementary barrier infrared detector design. We found that irradiation with 68 MeV protons causes a significant increase of the dark current from jd = 5 × 10−5 A/cm2 to jd = 6 × 10−3 A/cm2, at Vb = 0.1 V, T = 80 K and fluence 19.2 × 1011 H+/cm2. Analysis of the dark current as a function of temperature and bias showed that the dominant contributor to the dark current in these devices changes from diffusion current to tunneling current after proton irradiation. This change in the dark current mechanism can be attributed to the onset of surface leakage current, generated by trap-assisted tunneling processes in proton displacement damage areas located near the device sidewalls.

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质子和中子在硅中位移损伤等效性计算

Cobalt-60, Proton and Electron Irradiation of a Radiation-Hardened Active Pixel Sensor

We present the key results of multiple dark current (DC) characterization campaigns of the HAS2 radiation-hardened active pixel sensor (APS). These characterizations encompassed Cobalt-60 total ionizing dose, proton and electron displacement damage tests at low and room temperature. This gives us the opportunity to discuss the relevance on this APS of two phenomena that had been previously observed on charge coupled devices (CCDs): room temperature displacement damage defect annealing, and the limited effects of electron displacement damage on dark current.

Degradation of a COTS linear CCD induced by proton irradiation

A Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) linear CCD irradiated by protons is examined experimentally in this study. A dummy output voltage, the charge transfer efficiency (CTE) and a dark signal were degraded by 2-, 5-, and 10-MeV proton irradiation for comparison. The CCDs irradiated by 2-MeV protons were damaged most seriously, and the CCDs irradiated by 5-MeV protons were damaged more than those irradiated by 10-MeV protons. Biased CCDs were damaged more seriously than unbiased CCDs with the same proton irradiation conditions. The vacancy density and distribution induced by proton displacement damage and the ionizing energy loss induced by proton ionization damage were calculated using TRIM software. The correlation between CTE degradation and nonionizing energy loss is analyzed.

Nanostructured photovoltaics for space power

Quantum dot enhanced solar cells have been evaluated both theoretically and experimentally. A detailed balance simulation of InAs quantum dot (QD) enhanced solar cells has been performed. A 14% (absolute) efficiency improvement has been predicted if the middle junction of a state-of-the-art space multi-junction III-V solar cell can be bandgap engineered using QDs. Experimental results for a GaAs middle junction enhanced with InAs QDs have shown an 8% increase in short circuit current compared to a baseline device. The current enhancement per layer of QD was extracted from device spectral response (0.017 mA per QD layer). This value was used to estimate the efficiency of multi-junction solar cells with up to 200 layers of QDs added to the middle current-limiting junction. In addition, the radiation tolerance of QD cells, key to operation of these cells in space environments, shows improved characteristics. Open circuit voltage (VOC) in QD devices was more resilient to both alpha and proton displacement damage, resulting in a 10X reduction in the rate of VOC degradation.

High-energy proton irradiation effects in GaAs devices

In this paper, we compare the energy dependences (53 and 115 MeV) of proton displacement damage coefficients for p/sup +/n GaAs solar cells with previously reported calculations of nonionizing energy loss (NIEL). Deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) was used to generate damage coefficients from the introduction rates of defects. New damage coefficients generated from GaAs bulk LEDs light output (1-530 MeV) are also reported. The damage coefficients from these devices for proton energies E>10 MeV vary but are bounded by the total and Coulombic NIEL.

In-flight annealing of displacement damage in GaAs LEDs: a Galileo story

A recent failure of Galileo's magnetic recorder was attributed to LED degradation. Annealing the culprit OP133 proved successful: irreplaceable data, taken during the encounter with Jupiter's previously unvisited moon Amalthea, was recovered. Annealing test data for both proton and electron displacement damage combined with a simple device temperature model explains some details of the failure and the partial recovery of recorder motor function.

Total dose and displacement damage effects in a radiation-hardened CMOS APS

A 512/spl times/512 CMOS active pixel sensor (APS) was designed and fabricated in a standard 0.5-/spl mu/m technology. The radiation tolerance of the sensor has been evaluated with Co-60 and proton irradiation with proton energies ranging from 11.7 to 59 MeV. The most pronounced radiation effect is the increase of the dark current. However, the total ionizing dose-induced dark current increase is orders of magnitude smaller than in standard devices. It behaves logarithmically with dose and anneals at room temperature. The dark current increase due to proton displacement damage is explained in terms of the nonionizing energy loss of the protons. The fixed pattern noise does not increase with total ionizing dose. Responsivity changes are observed after Co-60 and proton irradiation, but a definitive cause has not yet been established.

Energy dependence of proton damage in optical emitters

The energy dependence of proton displacement damage effects is investigated for light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes. Injection-enhanced annealing occurs more rapidly when devices are irradiated with protons below 50 MeV compared with annealing from 200-MeV protons. A different interpretation of damage in amphoterically doped LEDs is used to show that the dependence of damage on energy is relatively flat for energies above 50 MeV, in contrast to older results in the literature that show a continued decrease in damage at higher energies.

Proton displacement damage in light-emitting and laser diodes

The effects of proton displacement damage on light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes are discussed, comparing the radiation sensitivity of current technology devices with older devices for which data exist in the literature. Injection-enhanced annealing is discussed, along with the issue of energy dependence of proton displacement damage. New characterization methods are proposed for light-emitting diodes that complement measurement of light output and provide a better indication of nonradiative recombination centers.

Proton displacement damage and ionizing dose for shielded devices in space

The sensitivity of displacement damage and ionizing dose calculations to both the incident proton energy spectrum and that transmitted through shields is calculated down to 100 eV for a solar proton event. The method is also applicable to trapped proton environments.

Proton, neutron and electron-induced displacement damage in germanium

Displacement damage factors for several types of germanium bipolar transistors have been measured for 15- and 30-MeV electrons, 22-, 40-, and 63-MeV protons, and fission neutrons. Each device was irradiated with both neutrons and either electrons or protons so that damage factor ratios could be determined. In this way dependence on resistivity, injection level, and device variability could be removed. The damage factor ratios were found to be directly proportional to the calculated nonionizing energy loss for electrons and protons over approximately two orders of magnitude. This means that the damage factors are directly proportional to the number of defects initially formed, whether as point defects or in cascades, and that the stable defects act independently so far as transistor gain is concerned. No evidence of cluster-space-charge effects was found. The implication of the results for a determination of a 1-MeV (GE) neutron damage equivalent fluence is discussed.< <ETX xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">&gt;</ETX>

Comparison of Neutron, Proton and Gamma Ray Effects in Semiconductor Devices

Interest in proton radiation effects has intensified in recent years. A prime focus is the relationship between proton displacement and ionization effects and the separate consideration of neutron-induced displacement and gamma-ionization effects in TREE characterization. Recent definitive work on proton and neutron displacement damage in silicon in terms of nonionizing energy loss has laid the groundwork for comparison of proton effects with the TREE data base. We initiate this comparison with a summary of device radiation susceptibilities in neutron and gamma environments. Proton interactions in silicon devices are then presented in terms of dose deposition and nonionizing energy loss. This leads to a neutron-proton damage equivalence factor and enables the development of simple correspondence. The device susceptibility charts are then combined so both displacement damage and ionization-damage can be schematically examined relative to proton dose. These susceptibility charts demonstrate the dominance of ionization effects for damage in a proton environment for modern silicon microcircuit technologies. This approach is presented as a convenient means of interpreting effects for both proton exposures and TREE simulators. It is concluded that TREE characterization can be used as a good first-order estimate of proton damage effects.