Protective Action Decision Model Research Articles

From infodemic to resilience: Exploring COVID-19 protective measures in armed-conflict zone.

The proliferation of inaccurate and misleading information about COVID-19 on social media poses a significant public health concern. This study examines the impact of the infodemic and beneficial information on COVID-19 protective behaviors in an armed-conflict country. Using the protective action decision model (PADM), data were collected from 1439 participants through a questionnaire in Yemen between August 2020 and April 2021. Structural equation modeling tested hypotheses generated by the PADM. The findings indicate that the infodemic reduces the likelihood of individuals adopting protective measures against COVID-19. Surprisingly, official announcements by accountable authorities do not moderate the relationship between the infodemic and protective responses. These results highlight the need for further research on resilience in armed-conflict countries. This study contributes to understanding armed-conflict countries' unique challenges in combating health crises. Addressing the infodemic and promoting accurate information is crucial in enhancing protective behaviors and mitigating the negative impact of misinformation. Policymakers and public health authorities can utilize these insights to develop targeted interventions and communication strategies that ensure accurate information dissemination and encourage the adoption of adequate protective measures.

One in three or three in one: Integrating three competing theoretical models (TPB, VIP, and PADM) to explain the intentions to act/actions against climate change

This study examines multidimensional factors affecting climate change response behavior. It constructs an integrated model based on the theory of planned behavior, value–identity–personal norms model, and protective action decision model, as a single theory cannot capture the complex nature of human behavior. Recent studies have shown that integrating theories include various influencing factors and indicate higher explanatory power. Therefore, this study uses an integrated model to identify multidimensional influencing factors. The fit of the integrated model was confirmed to be excellent (Chi-square = 1271.866, p = .000, GFI = 0.930, NFI = 0.940, RMSEA = 0.060, TLI = 0.937, SRMR = 0.059), and identity exhibited the greatest effect on personal norms, followed by intention on behavior. The integrated model suggests the following path: ecological value → identity → personal norms → stakeholder awareness → intention → behavior and then ecological value → identity → perceived behavioral control → risk awareness → intention → behavior. The results of the integrated model suggest that a multifaceted approach is necessary to promote climate change response behavior. Various factors, such as ecological value, identity, personal norms, stakeholder awareness, perceived behavioral control, and risk awareness, interact and influence behavior. Policies and programs that comprehensively consider these factors should be established.

The driving mechanism of citizens’ protective behaviors for rainstorm flood disasters in China: an empirical study based on the protection motivation theory and protective action decision model

[Background/significance]Rainstorm floods have become a high-impact natural disaster and are expected to become more extreme shortly, seriously threatening human safety. Although the government issues timely and precise rainstorm flood warning information, citizens remain indifferent and engage in maladaptive behavior. Therefore, understanding the relationship between emergency information, psychological cognition, individual characteristics, and protective behavior is crucial for effective risk information communication and evacuation guidance. [Method/process]This study utilizes the protection motivation theory (PMT) and protective action decision model (PADM) to develop a structural equation model (SEM) that evaluates the factors driving both protective and non-protective behaviors of individuals to rainstorm flood disasters. [Result/conclusion]The findings indicate that the disaster experience and emergency information received significantly shape how individuals perceive risks, their ability to manage them, and who should be accountable for the disaster. The findings further indicate that how people view their ability to handle a risk situation (perceived coping ability) and who they think is responsible for the situation (perceived attribution of responsibility) directly influence whether they will take protective behaviors. Based on these results, this study puts forward policy recommendations for emergency information release strategies to enhance citizens' willingness to adopt protective behaviors.

Predicting households’ attitudes and product adoption intentions

PurposeThe present study aims to examine the households’ attitudes and intentions to adopt an indoor air purifier against the smog crisis in India by using a comprehensive theoretical framework based on the combination of the Protective Action Decision Model (PADM) and the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2030 also emphasized ensuring a healthy and safe life, especially by achieving SDG-3, SDG-11 and SDG-13.Design/methodology/approachUsing purposive sampling, the data were collected through a survey questionnaire distributed to 382 households, and study hypotheses were assessed by using partial least squares structural equation modeling employing SmartPLS.FindingsThe results revealed that mental health risk perception (MHRP) was the most influential determinant of households’ attitudes toward adopting air purifiers, followed by smog knowledge, physical health risk perception (PHRP), information seeking and product knowledge. Notably, results revealed that households’ attitude is a leading determinant of their adoption intention toward the air purifier compared to subjective norms (SN) and perceived behavioral control (PBC).Originality/valueTo the best of the authors’ knowledge, the present study is the first to provide new insights into an individual’s protective behavior response toward ecological hazards by examining the households’ adoption intention toward the air purifier against the smog crisis using PADM and TPB model inclusively. In addition, the present study analyzes the impact of both PHRP and MHRP on individuals’ protective behavior separately. Also, this study provides theoretical contributions and important practical implications for the government, manufacturers and air purifier sellers.

Community preparedness for natural hazards in two Chilean coastal cities

Chile is a country with high exposure to earthquakes and tsunamis. However, cities present different levels of community preparedness. Understanding the decision-making process for adopting preparedness measures is essential to motivating community participation while considering the local needs of each city. Considering the Protective Action Decision Model (PADM) to understand community preparedness, this study explores the role of risk perception, risk awareness, and trust in authorities in community preparedness in two coastal cities in Chile. A sample of 1093 inhabitants of two coastal cities, Valparaíso and Concepción, participated in the study. The results indicate significant differences between coastal cities' preparedness levels and their determinants, particularly risk perception and awareness. Despite these differences, our results show that trust in authorities is related to Chile's community preparedness levels in both locations.

Understanding residents’ risk information seeking, processing and sharing regarding waste incineration power projects

Waste incineration power projects (WIPP) may face suspicion and resistance due to potential environmental and health risks. Information behavior has become a crucial way for residents to manage the risks. By integrating the risk information seeking and processing (RISP) model with the protective action decision model (PADM), the study develops a four-stage model that incorporates information acquisition and perceived benefits to understand the determinants of residents’ information behaviors regarding WIPP. A total of 1726 respondents were interviewed. The results indicate that 77.5 % respondents frequently use social media. Of the twenty-five hypothesized paths, twenty-one were found to be significant. Information acquisition from social media plays a larger predictive role than that from official media. Perceived risks, benefits, and knowledge positively predict information sharing, systematic processing, and information seeking, respectively. Perceived knowledge has the strongest direct influence on information insufficiency (β = 0.24, p < 0.001) with the explained variance of systematic processing being the highest (R2 = 0.51). Interesting, the relationship between information insufficiency and information sharing, as well as between relevant channel beliefs and information sharing, are negative. Theoretical insights into extending the PADM and the RISP model are provided, as well as managerial implications for risk communication about WIPP.

Are You Watching or Warning? the Role of Comprehension, Warning Lead Time and Prior Experience On Individual Preparation of Tornadic Events

This study examines how prior experience with tornados and predicted warning lead times of severe weather may influence one’s willingness to take protective action when a potential tornadic event is imminent. Using theoretical constructs from the Protective Action Decision Model and Risk Information Seeking and Processing model, the project examines how individuals make decisions about taking protective action and what factors motivate them during severe weather. The overall focus of the study is the impact of prior experience with tornados, geographic location and amount of warning lead time on an individual’s likelihood to prepare for potential severe weather. A survey of 679 mid-south residents provided insight into their perceptions of warning language and events. Results indicated that individuals who live in rural areas and those who have more prior experience with tornadic events are more likely to engage in protective behavior. Further, an interaction was noted, indicating those with more prior experience with tornados reporting that they needed less warning lead time to prepare when compared to those with less prior experience, who reported they wished for more lead warning time. Finally, definitions of “tornado warning” noted that more than half of participants did correctly identify its meaning.

The influence of environmental cues on behavioral response: An assessment of the Protective Action Decision Model in the context of COVID‐19

AbstractThe Protective Action Decision Model has emerged within the literature as a theoretical model with promising predictive ability, particularly in the context of short‐term behavioral response and longer‐term hazard adjustments. However, the applicability of the model in the context of public health hazards is less certain. Accordingly, this research utilizes an online questionnaire instrument disseminated via Qualtrics to residents of New York State at three points in the COVID‐19 pandemic (October 2020, January 2021, and May–June 2021) to examine whether changes to the built environment (i.e., signs requiring masking, signs requiring social distancing, and presence of hand sanitizing stations) influenced threat perceptions (i.e., perception of severity and likelihood of infection), and in turn, behavioral responses (i.e., masking, social distancing, and hand sanitizing) at different points in time. The results demonstrate that changes in the built environment were positively associated with behavioral responses at different points in the pandemic, rather than being mediated through threat perception, as predicted by the Protective Action Decision Model (PADM). The paper concludes with a brief discussion of how these findings may guide future research on environmental cues, threat perceptions, and behavioral response to better understand protective action decision‐making in the context of an ongoing public health hazard.

Individual heat adaptation: Analyzing risk communication, warnings, heat risk perception, and protective behavior in three German cities.

Extreme heat poses severe health threats, as the increased numbers of hospitalizations and fatalities during heat waves show, though little is known about adaptive behavior toward heat. We conducted a household survey on individual perceptions of heat stress and individual heat protection in the summer and autumn of 2019. In total, 1417 people from three medium-sized German cities participated via telephone or online. Based on the Protective Action Decision Model (PADM), which we adapted to heat stress, we analyzed links between risk perception, environmental and demographic factors, perceptions of stakeholders, different heat warning messages, as well as actual and intended adaptive behavior. Overall, the PADM constructs explained around 16% of the variance in protection motivation, 19% in protective response, and 23% in emotion-focused coping. Context factors (i.e., temperature, risk communication, gender, age, and homeownership) were significant predictors of the addressed outcome variables as were psychological factors (i.e., perceived personal vulnerability, response efficacy, response costs, preparedness, and perceived external responsibility). We further explored the effect of different warning messages on situational knowledge and intended behavioral adaptation in an experimental setting. Results showed that respondents felt significantly better informed after receiving a warning with action recommendations and reported more intended specific behaviors. Our research gives insights into individual protective action decision-making processes. Based on our findings, we recommend tailoring risk communication strategies and combining heat warnings with action recommendations whenever possible to increase understanding and individual adaptation.

Explaining compliance with COVID-19 regulation in China and the United States: cultural biases, political trust, and perceptions of risk and protective actions

AbstractHow do cultural biases, trust in government, and perceptions of risk and protective actions influence compliance with regulation of COVID-19? Analyzing Chinese (n = 646) and American public opinion samples (n = 1,325) from spring 2020, we use Grid–Group Cultural Theory and the Protective Action Decision Model to specify, respectively, cultural influences on public risk perceptions and decision-making regarding protective actions. We find that cultural biases mostly affect protective actions indirectly through public perceptions. Regardless of country, hierarchical cultural biases increase protective behaviors via positive perceptions of protective actions. However, other indirect effects of cultural bias via public perceptions vary across both protective actions and countries. Moreover, trust in government only mediates the effect of cultural bias in China and risk perception only mediates the effect of cultural bias in the United States. Our findings suggest that regulators in both countries should craft regulations that are congenial to culturally diverse populations.

Effects of flood risk warnings on preparedness behavior: Evidence from northern China

During floods caused by extreme precipitation, early warning systems and public disaster preparedness behavior are crucial in mitigating the adverse effects of floods. The torrential rain disaster in Zhengzhou, Henan, in July 2021 is a clear reminder that these warnings did not receive adequate attention, and the general public did not take sufficient preventive measures. Previous research on risk perception and disaster preparedness behavior has often overlooked social support, a key factor. In particular, for non-disaster-prone areas, little research has been conducted on the impact of flood risk warnings, social support, and risk perception on disaster preparedness behavior during sudden disasters. To bridge this divide, this study utilizes survey data collected from urban regions of northern China that are not susceptible to disasters. The primary objective is to examine the impact of flood risk warnings, social support, and four core risk perceptions on public disaster preparedness behavior. Based on the Protective Action Decision Model, we have developed a new comprehensive impact model, which provides a framework for our analysis. The findings suggest that resource attributes and stakeholder perceptions mediate the relationship between flood risk warnings and disaster preparedness intention. Furthermore, stakeholder perception exerts a stronger mediating effect than resource attribute perception. In addition, social support, along with two primary risk perceptions, has a mediating chain effect, which enhances three risk perceptions and promotes public disaster preparedness behavior. Overall, our model explains the core mechanism underlying public disaster preparedness behavior in flood-prone areas and also provides valuable insights for policymakers to develop effective risk mitigation and communication strategies during extreme precipitation events.

Evacuate or social distance? Modeling the influence of threat perceptions on hurricane evacuation in a dual-threat environment.

This study investigates how different risk predictors influenced households' evacuation decisions during a dual-threat event (Hurricane Laura and COVID-19 pandemic). The Protective Action Decision Model (PADM) literature indicates that perceived threat variables are the most influential variables that drive evacuation decisions. This study applies the PADM to investigate a dual-threat disaster that has conflicting protective action recommendations. Given the novelty, scale, span, impact, and messaging around COVID-19, it is crucial to see how hurricanes along the Gulf Coast-a hazard addressed seasonally by residents with mostly consistent protective action messaging-produce different reactions in residents in this pandemic context. Household survey data were collected during early 2021 using a disproportionate stratified sampling procedure to include households located in mandatory and voluntary evacuation areas across the coastal counties in Texas and parishes in Louisiana that were affected by Hurricane Laura. Structural equation modeling was used to identify the relationships between perceived threats and evacuation decisions. The findings suggest affective risk perceptions strongly affected cognitive risk perceptions (CRPs). Notably, hurricane and COVID-19 CRPs are significant predictors of hurricane evacuation decisions in different ways. Hurricane CRPs encourage evacuation, but COVID-19 CRPs hinder evacuation decisions.

Differences between self-initiated and exogenous preparedness: A study on the stock of household emergency material during the COVID-19 in China

Household emergency material preparedness is crucial for effective risk management and crisis response. Different motivations, such as self-initiated and exogenous, can lead to similar preparedness behaviors, which makes public preparedness behaviors to be unpredictable. During the COVID-19 pandemic, people have been increasingly aware of the need for household emergency material preparedness, and governments have also advocated for crisis preparedness. Based on the theoretical framework of the protective action decision model, this study investigated 897 respondents in the Chinese mainland area to assess the determinants of residents' emergency material preparedness, distinguishing between self-initiated and exogenous preparedness. The results showed that: (1) The self-initiated emergency material preparedness was mainly influenced by perceived behavioral efficacy, perceived behavioral cost, and perceived personal protection responsibility. (2) The exogenous emergency material preparedness was mainly influenced by COVID-19 risk perception, perceived behavioral efficacy, and trust in government. (3) Perceived behavioral efficacy mediated the relationship between risk perception and the two types of preparedness behaviors investigated. These results can help the government improve communication aimed to foster household preparedness during a crisis.

Understanding the Factors Affecting Travel Avoidance behavior During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Findings From a Mixed Method Approach

Pandemics are affecting tourism in many ways, and have had a major effect on international travel, the hospitality industry and tourism demand. Grounded in the protective action decision model and complexity theory, this study seeks to develop a model to explain the conditions that have led to travel avoidance in the UK in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. To test our proposed model, we used a fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis of data gathered from 1,290 travelers, with semi-structured interviews conducted to confirm the configurations identified by the model. The findings indicate that effective pandemic information, effective risk communication, supplies, trust in government and trust in the media are necessary to combat travel avoidance, but the refutation of rumor and trust among traveler is not necessary to foster travel avoidance. Furthermore, qualitative follow-up interviews were conducted to obtain deeper insights into the discovered configurations and develop effective pathways to travel avoidance.

How did consumers' self-protective behavior formed during the COVID-19 pandemic?

This study explored the formation mechanism of consumers' self-protective behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic, which is very important for policy settings to regulate consumer behavior. Based on the basic framework of the Protective Action Decision Model (PADM), this study analyzed the formation mechanism of consumers' self-protective willingness from the perspective of risk information, and explained the deviation between consumers' self-protective willingness and behavior from the perspective of protective behavior attributes. Based on 1,265 consumer survey data during the COVID-19 pandemic, the empirical test was carried out. The amount of risk information has a significant positive impact on the consumers' self-protective willingness, where the credibility of risk information plays a positive moderating role between them. Risk perception plays a positive mediating role between the amount of risk information and the consumers' self-protective willingness, and the positive mediating effect of risk perception is negatively moderated by the credibility of risk information. In the protective behavior attributes, hazard-related attributes play a positive moderating role between the consumers' self-protective willingness and behavior, while resource-related attributes play the opposite role. Consumers pay more attention to hazard-related attributes than resource-related attributes, and they are willing to consume more resources to reduce risk.

Risk perception and travel behavior under short-lead evacuation: Post disaster analysis of 2020 Beirut Port Explosion

Human-made disasters continue to be the most dangerous of all types of disasters due to their suddenness and unpredictability. This calls for a thorough examination of people’s evacuation behavior due to its impact on the evacuation procedure and its significance for evacuation planning. This study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the decision-making process of residents in case a human-made disaster occurs with an application to Beirut, Lebanon. This study is essential for pre-disaster planning, which mitigates potential damage from such disasters. Using structural equation modeling (SEM), the current study uses the Protective Action Decision Model (PADM) framework to explain intention toward evacuation behavior before a human-made disaster in three situations: being at home with all family members, having absent family members, and being at work or university when the event occurs. The findings of this study show that the PADM framework is relevant to explaining evacuation behavior intentions prior to a human-made disaster incident. Results indicate that knowledge perception does not trigger the intended behavior of evacuating immediately in the studied situations. Besides, the results indicate low confidence in the government’s emergency plans and the unreliability of the official government warnings about human-made hazards. Overall, the findings of this study may contribute to a better understanding of evacuation behavior from disasters with less lead warning time. Besides, they may aid the Disaster Risk Management unit of Lebanon in developing emergency evacuation strategies that: understand the public’s evacuation behavior; customize city-specific evacuation logistics; optimize the dissemination of evacuation information.

A Culture of Fire: Identifying Community Risk Perceptions Surrounding Prescribed Burning in the Flint Hills, Kansas

In the Flint Hills region of eastern Kansas, there is a long tradition of spring prescribed burns. However, air quality concerns in downwind communities have sparked conversation regarding the environmental and social impacts of these burns. This study aimed to identify the risk perceptions associated with prescribed burns using two theoretical frameworks: the social amplification of risk framework and the protective action decision model. In April 2022, we conducted 18 in-depth, semi-structured interviews with Flint Hills community members from different social stations. Participants identified several benefits of prescribed burns: cattle production gains, invasive species management, prairie ecological health maintenance, and wildfire prevention. Some participants viewed prescribed burning as a protective response. However, risk perceptions differed between rural and urban participants: rural community members were primarily concerned with prescribed fires that went out of control, while those in downwind cities were primarily concerned with smoke exposure. Participants sometimes used protective actions to mitigate their risks, but also explained the complexities of changing burn practices that are integral to the local culture, economies, and greater society. Additionally, formal communication of health and safety risks from prescribed burns is not uniform across Kansas counties. We therefore recommend systematic county and statewide communication of burn practices and protective behaviors. Understanding community perceptions of the risks and effects of prescribed burns, and any protective actions taken, can inform how professional communicators approach burning in similar agricultural and ranching communities.

What attributes influence rural household's willingness to get vaccinated for COVID-19? Perspectives from six Chinese townships.

Since the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, vaccinations have been identified as the most effective mitigation strategy against the deadly virus. This has led developed nations to accelerate research and shorten the licensure process for COVID-19 vaccines, but these changes have caused widespread concerns about vaccine safety. Research literature has long indicated that citizens' perceptions of protective actions will determine their behaviors, and thus, the relationship between vaccine perception and vaccination intention needs to be assessed. To better understand vaccination willingness, especially in rural populations, this study surveyed 492 households from six townships in the Ya'an region of China's Sichuan Province in November 2020. The survey followed the Protective Action Decision Model (PADM) framework for collecting perceptions about the influenza and COVID-19 vaccines as protective actions, information sources, emergency preparedness, emotional response, and demographic characteristics. The results showed that influenza vaccine perceptions significantly affected people's COVID-19 vaccination perceptions and intentions. Unlike previous vaccination willingness and other COVID-19 studies, this study found that perceptions of resource-related attributes and health-related attributes both affected COVID-19 vaccination intentions, but the former were slightly stronger than the latter. Moreover, these effects were strongest among respondents who had the most positive perceptions of their influenza vaccine experience. This study's findings will benefit local authorities in designing appropriate policies and measures (e.g., hazard education, risk communication, vaccination convenience enhancement) for increasing vaccination compliance for the current and future pandemics.

Understanding Consumer Panic Buying Behaviors during the Strict Lockdown on Omicron Variant: A Risk Perception View

Panic buying has been globally observed, leading to substantial stock-outs and supply chain disruptions, thus inducing additional panic buying. Regarding panic buying behavior as an intuitive over-protective measure during the strict lockdown and seal-off management in China, this study presented a synthetic conceptual model by integrating the protective action decision model (PADM). We examined inductively the relationships among media exposure, cognitive-affective risk perception, stakeholder perception, protective perception, and panic buying behavior using a survey of 517 participants who experienced panic buying during the Omicron epidemic in China. Results suggest that traditional media exposure could attenuate people’s affective risk perception, whereas social media exposure increases the degree of cognitive and affective aspects of risk perception. Furthermore, we detect that cognitive and affective risk perceptions positively affect people’s panic-buying behaviors. The effects of stakeholder and protective perceptions on panic buying were also examined.

Understanding the intention to stay and defend during a bushfire: An application of virtual reality to improve awareness of predictors associated with behavioural response

Encouraging residents of bushfire-prone areas to make wise protective action decisions in response to bushfire threats is a challenging task. Despite the emphasis on early evacuation as the safest option, there are circumstances when staying and defending a property is a rational decision. Using the protective action decision model (PADM), this study aimed to: (1) increase understanding of the relative importance of bushfire risk perception, protective action perception, and stakeholder perception in predicting the intention to ‘stay and defend’ and (2) analyse the effect of a virtual reality (VR) intervention on these factors among South Australian residents (n = 299). Prior to the VR intervention, participants were grouped into three cohorts of ‘stay and defend’, ‘leave early’ and ‘wait and see’ based on their preferred protective action on a day forecast as a day of severe fire danger. The participants who either indicated they would ‘stay and defend’ or ‘wait and see’ experienced the intervention which challenged their capacity to ‘stay and defend’ using a virtual bushfire threat. Structural equation modelling (SEM) analysis of data showed that protective action perception was the strongest predictor of the intention to stay and defend for all cohorts. Self-efficacy was found to have a mediating role between risk perception and the intention to stay and defend. For those intending to ‘stay and defend’, stakeholder perception was not a significant predictor, however, its importance amongst all three groups significantly increased after exposure to the virtual bushfire experience. Understanding the differences in the decision-making process of the three cohorts and the way they were influenced by the virtual scenario provides valuable insights that could contribute to the design of more effective bushfire risk communication strategies.