Tire Manufacturing Research Articles

Readiness study of environmentally friendly motor vehicle tire industry and its supporting infrastructure in implementing tire labeling regulation

Tire labeling is a label on tire products that have met specific rolling resistance, wet grip, and noise emission requirements. It aims to increase road transport’s safety and economic and environmental efficiency by promoting fuel-efficient and safe tires with low external rolling noise. Indonesia has many tire industries and is a significant global market for motor vehicles; they may consider applying tire labeling. The implementation of tire labeling in Indonesia requires a study of the readiness of the tire industry and its supporting infrastructure, including the necessary testing facilities and end-user awareness. The study was carried out by conducting literature studies and distributing questionnaires. The study results showed that the tire industry has sound capabilities, but it is necessary to increase the readiness of an independent testing laboratory. End-user acceptance of tire label products is good, but awareness of tire labels needs to be improved. The application of tire labels in Indonesia is projected to reduce CO2 emissions significantly.

A multi-objective approach for designing a tire closed-loop supply chain network considering producer responsibility

For tire manufacturers to remain profitable while fulfilling environmental and social obligations such as producer responsibility, the opportunity lies in designing a tire Closed-Loop Supply Chain (CLSC) which combines forward and reverse supply chains. In this paper, a new multi-objective mixed-integer linear programming model is proposed to configure and optimize a multi-echelon, multi-product, multi-period tire CLSC network based on multiple recovery options and markets. For one of the objectives of the model, the weighting factors (importance) of suppliers are determined according to a unique framework of qualitative criteria. In this respect, a novel decision-making method based on Spherical fuzzy logic is developed. Finally, the solution approach is devised based on the formulation of the augmented ε-constraint method for finding efficient solutions. The application of the model is illustrated focusing on the region of Greater Toronto Area in Ontario, Canada. The optimal quantities for the flows of products, and number and locations of open facilities of the network are computed. The results show that the selected suppliers and allocated orders from them are impacted by considering multiple objectives.

Thermal aging and automotive oil effects on the performance of electron beam irradiated styrene butadiene rubber/waste and microwave devulcanized rubber blends

Replacement of virgin polymer with its waste become one of the special technique that capture the efforts of many researchers and industrialists alike. In this context, this work discussed the partial replacement of waste tire rubber (WR) and microwave devulcanized rubber (DWR) at different ratios on the properties of virgin styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) as one of the most essential components of synthetic rubber in the tire production. Fixed percent of tetramethylthiuram disulfide and spindle oil were added at the first, then the WR mixture was exposed to different microwave times. Microwave devulcanization value at time 6 min gave the highest devulcanization percent. The prepared blends were exposed in an electron beam accelerator (EB) at 50 and 100 kGy. FTIR, different mechanical parameters, thermal stability (TGA) and scanning electron microscopy of the fabricated specimens have been explained. Effect of automotive oil and thermal aging at different temperature, 70oC and 100oC on the tensile strength and elongation at break (E%) of the unirradiated and irradiated prepared blends have been estimated. Mechanical measurements of all examined specimens after thermal aging and oil immersion were least affected. Moreover, these factors before and after oil dipping and thermal aging revealed that unirradiated and irradiated SBR/DWR blends have superior properties than SBR/WR.

예측 모델 기반 섀플리 값을 이용한 타이어 설계 인자 분석

In the tire manufacturing industry, factor analysis plays a crucial role in deriving design candidates that can increase tire performance by deriving design factors, including variable importance and directions of design change. Typically, expert knowledge and finite element analysis (FEA) are necessary to derive design factors. However, they required a high computation load. Although several studies have been performed using machine learning and variable selection methods, they have limitations in recommending design change directions for each variable. In this study, we propose a predictive model coupled with Shapley additive explanations (SHAP) for tire design factor analysis. We first construct a predictive model using tire design data, and then applied SHAP for deriving important variables and directions of design change. To demonstrate the effectiveness of our methodology, we evaluate the design candidates using FEA. Results show that our methodology is effective for a tire factor analysis.

Efficient management of industrial electric vehicles by means of static and dynamic wireless power transfer systems

Industrial companies are moving toward the electrification of equipment and processes, in line with the broader energy transition taking place across the economy. Particularly, the energy efficiency and, consequently, the reduction of environmental pollution of intralogistics activities have become a competitive element and are now an actual research and development objective. A wireless power transfer is a contactless electrical energy transmission technology based on the magnetic coupling between coils installable under the ground level and a coil mounted under the vehicle floor, and it represents an excellent solution to decrease the demand for batteries by reducing vehicle downtimes during the recharge. This work aims to define a methodology to determine the optimal positioning of wireless charging units across the warehouse, both for static and dynamic recharging. To this aim, firstly, a mathematical model of the warehouse is proposed to describe transfers and storage/retrieval operations executed by the forklifts. Then, an integer linear programming problem is applied to find the best possible layout of the charging infrastructures. The optimal solution respects the energetic requirements given by the customer and minimizes the overall system cost. The proposed approach was applied to optimize the installation in a real-size warehouse of a tire manufacturing company. Several scenarios were computer generated through discrete event simulation in order to test the optimizer in different warehouse conditions. The obtained results show that integrated dynamic and static WPT systems ensure a constant state of charge of the electric vehicles during their operations.

Defect classification of radius shaping in the tire curing process using Fine-Tuned Deep Neural Network

The curing process or vulcanization process is the final stage of the tire manufacturing process, where the properties of the tire compound change from rubber-plastic material to become elastic by forming cross-links in its molecular structure. The green tire is formed in the curing process, which is placed on the bottom mould. The inside of the green tire surrounds the bladder. The top mould will close to carry out the next curing process. In closing the mould, there is a shaping process of forming a green tire placed on the bladder and given a proportional pressure. Improper or abnormal radius shaping results cause seventy percent of product defects. This paper proposed abnormal detection of radius shaping in the curing process using Fine-tuned Deep Neural Network (DNN). Several DNN models have been examined to analyze an optimized DNN model for abnormal detection of radius shaping in the curing process. The fine-tuned DNN architecture has been exported for the curing system. The DNN was trained with a training accuracy of 97.88%, a validation accuracy of 95%, a testing accuracy of 100%, and a loss of 4.93%.

Optimization of Tire Production Planning Using The Goal Programming Method and Sensitivity Analysis

In Indonesia there are many companies that are engaged in tire retreading or reuse of unused used tires. One of the problems in the retread business in Indonesia is that the tire production target is often not fulfilled and the lack of available tires is used as the main raw material for retreading due to the long process of sending tires from consumers to companies. The purpose of this study is to determine the optimal needs of resources, determine the priority of achievement and determine the value of sensitivity to the optimum solution achieved. The method used in this study is the Goal Programming Method, because it is suitable for problems that have many goals because through its deviation, the method can automatically capture information about the relative achievement of the goals to be achieved. Based on the results of research that has been done, it can be concluded that the maximum income earned by the company is IDR 474,426,000 or an increase of 36% from the limit set by the company. In addition, it can also be concluded that the sensitivity range for the boundary quantity value is the distance at which the shadow price remains valid. If it increases above the upper limit of sensitivity (increases) or decreases below the lower limit (decreases), the value of the shadow price will change.

Recent trends in industrial and academic developments of green tyre technology.

Growing natural calamities as a consequence of global warming are one of the most pondering subjects today. The exponential growth of environmental pollution due to unscientific human exploitation of natural resources is considered the prime reason for the harsh responses of nature. Researchers from various fields of industry and academia are working hard to develop and implement products/technologies that are environmentally friendly or less harmful to the ecosystem. Material researchers, specifically those working in the automobile sector are also not behind in search of green products from eco-friendly raw materials and production methods. The automobile industry is collectively responsible for around 40% of global pollution in terms of greenhouse gas emissions. Out of which around 20–30% is originating from tyre production and its end-use. In this view, tyre production from eco-friendly raw materials and technologies that have minimum hazardousness to the environment is a hot research topic today. A few products in the market with “green” tags and many are in the pipeline for the recent future. This review summarises a detailed discussion of the emerging green technologies for tyre production and depicted comprehensive data from the available literature. The paper has been drafted from a well-balanced academic and industrial point of view since the researchers from both sectors are working in harmony for a better future for green tyre technology.

Concrete with a High Content of End-of-Life Tire Materials for Flexural Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Structures.

This research investigates the performance of Steel Fiber Reinforced Rubberized Concrete (SFRRC) that incorporates high volumes of End-of-life tire materials, (i.e., both rubber particles and recycled tire steel fibers) in strengthening existing reinforced concrete (RC) beams. The mechanical and durability properties were determined for an environmentally friendly SFRRC mixture that incorporates a large volume (60% by volume aggregate replacement) of rubber particles and is solely reinforced by recycled tire steel fibers. The material was assessed experimentally under flexural, compressive and impact loading, and thus results led to the development of a numerical model using the Finite Element Method. Furthermore, a numerical study on full-scale structural members was conducted, focusing on conventional RC beams strengthened with SFRRC layers. This research presents the first study where SFRRC is examined for structural strengthening of existing RC beams, aiming to enable the use of such novel materials in structural applications. The results were compared to respective results of beams strengthened with conventional RC layers. The study reveals that incorporation of End-of-life tire materials in concrete not only serves the purpose of recycling End-of-life tire products, but can also contribute to unique properties such as energy dissipation not attained by conventional concrete and therefore leading to superior performance as flexural strengthening material. It was found that by incorporating 60% by volume rubber particles in combination with recycled steel fibers, it increased the damping ratio of concrete by 75.4%. Furthermore, SFRRC was proven effective in enhancing the energy dissipation of existing structural members.

SOC-II-05 The effect of exposure to rubber production emissions and physical activity on pulmonary function indexes among tire manufacturing employees in Iran

SOC-II-05 The effect of exposure to rubber production emissions and physical activity on pulmonary function indexes among tire manufacturing employees in Iran

A Plant Simulation approach for optimal resource utilization: A case study in the tire manufacturing industry

In this study, the resource allocation and vital manufacturing processes in the tire manufacturing industry was comprehensively optimized. The paper deals in detail with the Banbury mixing process, which produces homogeneous rubber materials for tire components. In addition, the mixing process models were established by the Plant Simulation software to validate and compare scenarios and experiments with realistic production constraints. Discrete empirical distribution (dEmp) was proposed for population data. Various scenarios were created for different resource and process. Experiments were set as different group of compound set. Experiment manager was used as a tool to set up scenarios and the experiments to provide alternative results. The study results display the production time and machine utilization. The shortest production time of experiment results represents the best group of each scenario. As results, the scenario, which BB1 is changed from non-productive Banbury mixer to special Banbury mixer along with the normal process is combined with second special process, provides the suitable production volume which can reduce of total production time for 8.06 %. Our study provides a variety of the resource utilization of a Banbury mixing process and suggests an efficient optimization method for production performance improvement.

Numerical Modeling and Experimental Investigation of Thermal Shrinkage in Polymeric Cords. II: Numerical Implementation

ABSTRACTIn this Part II of a two-part paper, a way of modeling axisymmetric rebars to represent the thermal shrinkage of polymeric cords within a thermo-mechanically coupled algorithm is presented without the assumption of a smeared layer. The mechanical characteristics of the proposed approach are compared to the classical approach using only one four-node axisymmetric element with unit dimensions. In addition, the shrinkage behavior of a simplified model made only of plies is discussed. The deformation behavior of polymeric cords during the tire manufacturing process, from the in-molding where a tire is formed by a mold under high pressure and temperature to curing and cooling, is addressed. Finally, the predicted profiles with and without post-cure inflation are compared to the test results.

Simulating vulcanization process during tire production to explore sulfur migration during pyrolysis

This paper systematically investigated sulfur transformation during pyrolysis of waste tires by simulating vulcanization process. Three formulas with rubbers, carbon black, ZnO, and typical vulcanization accelerators were prepared by vulcanization and compounded process as simulated tires. Stepwise temperature programmed pyrolysis was conducted in thermogravimetric analyzer and fixed bed reactor. Vulcanization promoted the weight loss rate for thermal degradation of vulcanized rubbers at 300–400 °C, but weakened it at 400–500 °C. The addition of vulcanization accelerators made these effects even more pronounced. Accordingly, more pyrolytic oil was obtained at 300–400 °C for vulcanized rubbers which should contribute to the partial destruction of polymer chains by vulcanization. Besides, vulcanized rubbers attained higher proportion of aromatics but less cyclenes than compounded rubbers. Vulcanized rubbers with ethyl ziram accelerator inhibited H2S release, while vulcanized rubbers with N-tert-Butyl-2-benzothiazolesulfenamide inhibited the formation of CH3SH. The detailed sulfur compounds in gas, oil, and solid char were analyzed. Vulcanization seemed to exhibit positive effect on sulfur transformation in pyrolytic products, i.e., higher retention rate in pyrolytic char but lower proportion ratio in gas. Sulfurization promoted the conversion of thiophene sulfur to inorganic sulfur and sulfides found in pyrolytic char was only ZnS.

머신러닝 및 베이지안 최적화를 이용한 타이어 최적 설계

Product design optimization plays an important role in the manufacturing industry. In the tire manufacturing industry, design optimization process traditionally involves generation of tire design candidates and quality prediction by using finite element analysis (FEA). However, this traditional process requires expert’s experiences to derive design candidates that satisfies target quality. In addition, FEA requires a lot of time to obtain the prediction results although it provides accurate predictive performance. To overcome these issues, we propose Bayesian optimization based on a predictive model for the tire design. We train a model that can predict multiple quality variables and perform Bayesian optimization that can optimize numerical and categorical variables simultaneously. Results show that the proposed method can effectively predict and optimize the tire design with reduced time complexity.

Sustainable SBR/silica nanocomposites prepared using high-quality recycled nanosilica from lead-acid battery separators

The management of end-of-life lead-acid battery wastes is one of the leading environmental issues society faces nowadays. Spent lead-acid battery separators or PE-separators can be used as sources of recycled nanosilica. Hence, recycling silica from spent PE-separators has many advantages, such as reducing environmental hazards. This study uses recycled nanosilica from the spent PE-separator to prepare Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (SBR) nanocomposite with potential applications in tire products. High purity silica nanoparticles are recycled from the PE-separator using the wet sand washing and pyrolysis process. Results showed that contaminations like iron and lead oxides could be effectively removed from the spent separator, and the high purity silica nanoparticles (>98.4 wt%) can be obtained. In the following, the SBR nanocomposites were produced with 5, 10, and 15 phr recycled silica nanoparticles. In the SBR nanocomposite sample with 5 phr recycled nanosilica and 45 phr carbon black, the modulus improved by 40%, tensile strength by 10%, and tear strength by 54% compared to the sample having only 50 phr carbon black. Moreover, in the samples having 50 phr CB and different amounts of the nanosilica, the mechanical properties are enhanced monotonically. Finally, this study defines a sustainable, innovative approach to recycling lead-acid battery separator wastes and using the obtained recycled nanosilica to prepare SBR/silica nanocomposites with potential tire industry applications.

Modeling thermal shrinkage of tire cords and its application in FE analysis of Post Cure Inflation

Thermal shrinkage in polymeric tire cords greatly influences tire dimensions and performance. In order to reduce the undesirable effects of this phenomenon, the Post Cure Inflation (PCI) process is used as a step in tire manufacturing. Finite element analysis of such a complex process requires the consideration of thermal shrinkage, creep, and change in material stiffness for both the cords and the rubber materials. This work focuses on the development of a tire cord material model, which accounts for thermal shrinkage and its related effects. A thermomechanical finite strain rebar element is formulated to enable the representation of the cords within the tire geometry. The proposed cord material distinguishes recoverable from unrecoverable shrinkage to allow a more general description of different types of polymeric cords. A temperature, stress and time dependent thermal shrinkage evolution law is introduced. Moreover, mechanical creep and stiffness variations due to temperature change and shrinkage are considered. The developed formulation is validated against several experimental data obtained for tire cords. Curing and PCI process of a tire segment are also simulated to investigate the effect of thermal shrinkage on the resulting tire dimensions.

Exploring Smart Tires as a Tool to Assist Safe Driving and Monitor Tire–Road Friction

Road surface friction, or in other words, a pavement’s skid resistance, is an essential attribute of highway safety, acting as a liaison between the infrastructure condition and the driver’s response to it through proper vehicle maneuvering. The present study reviews aspects related to the tire–road friction, including affecting factors, monitoring systems and related practices, and demonstrates the efficacy of using smart tires, or tires embedded with sensors, for the purpose of evaluating roadway friction levels in real-time while traveling. Such an approach is expected to assist drivers in adjusting their behavior (i.e., lowering their speed) in the event that signs of reduced skid resistance are observed in favor of road safety. The current challenges and research prospects are highlighted in terms of tire manufacturers’ perspectives as well as future mobility patterns with autonomous driving modes. Overall, smart tires are commented as a tool able to enhance drivers’ safety for both current and future mobility patterns, help to control pavement deterioration and complement existing practices for infrastructure condition assessment.

Strong Hydrophobic and Ultraviolet Reflective Film from Fluorinated Polyisoprene with Microphase Separation via Thiol–Epoxy Click Chemistry

AbstractPolyisoprene is widely used in the industrial production of tires, thermoplastic elastomers, pressure sensitive adhesives, coatings, plasticizers, lubricants, and other functional materials. However, due to the inherent molecular defect of containing many unsaturated double bonds, polyisoprene exhibits relatively weak environmental endurance, especially under extreme environmental conditions. To incorporate the excellent features of fluorinated polymer such as tough environmental endurance, a new type of fluorinated polyisoprene is tailored and a facile procedure of introducing fluoroalkyl side chains onto polyisoprene backbone is carried out via epoxidation and thiol–epoxy click chemistry under mild conditions. The results demonstrate that fluorinated alkyl side chains are successfully clicked onto backbone chains of polyisoprene and the corresponding film exhibits a microphase separation structure. As for the fluorinated polyisoprene film after the introduction of fluoroalkyl groups, the water contact angle enhances significantly from 79.4° to 114.8° and the UV reflectivity improves markedly. In addition, the surface chemical constituents confirm that the incorporated fluoroalkyl groups have a tendency to migrate and enrich spontaneously onto the film surface.

Thermochemical Conversion Processes as a Path for Sustainability of the Tire Industry: Carbon Black Recovery Potential in a Circular Economy Approach

The common use of tires is responsible for the production of large quantities of waste worldwide, which are landfilled or energetically recovered, with higher economical cost and known environmentally harmful consequences. This type of problem must be studied, and all efforts must be conducted to eliminate, or at least mitigate, such high costs. The use of thermochemical conversion processes, such as pyrolysis, can allow the recycling and the reuse of raw materials for the tire industry, namely, in the production of carbon black, usually produced using the controlled combustion of fossil fuels. This article reports the production of torrefied and carbonized waste tire samples using a laboratorial procedure, and their subsequent laboratory characterization, specifically the elemental and proximate analysis. This preliminary approach found that carbon concentration in the produced rubber char reached values higher than 75%, indicating the possibility of its reuse in the production of carbon black to in turn be used in the production of new tires or other industrial rubber materials. The possibility of using this rubber char for other uses, such as energy recovery, is still depending on further studies, namely, the evaluation of the amount of sulfur present in the final product.

ВНЕДРЕНИЕ ТЕХНОЛОГИИ FLEXIBLE SIDEWALL

Studies on increasing the level of yield have the great importance for the Russian Federation as a whole and the Altai Territory in particular as for the agro-industrial complex. LLC “NORTEC” developed and implemented the Flexible sidewall technology in order to reduce tire pressure on the ground. An analysis of the external characteristics, composition of the tire, as well as the impact of its surface on the ground was carried out. It was possible to reduce the operating pressure in the tire to 0.8 kgf / cm2, while increasing the contact patch because of change in the design and composition of rubber compounds. Particular attention in the study was paid to the distribution of material in the tire, which influenced further characteristics and performance. The results of these studies will be further applied to the line of large-sized agricultural tires manufactured by Nortek LLC. The tire 710/70R38 FS, produced using the Flexible sidewall technology, was tested and improved in several stages, after which the tire could be the most competitive with foreign analogues. The article will be useful both to specialists in the production of rubber materials, students, teachers of chemical specialties and to a circle of readers, interested in modern tire production and the prospects for the agricultural industry.