Aquatic Animal Production Research Articles

The application of Global Burden of Animal Diseases methodology to aquatic animal production.

The Global Burden of Animal Diseases (GBADs) programme's key objective â€" to provide a systematic approach to determine the burden of animal disease â€" is as relevant to aquatic as to terrestrial animal production systems. However, to date GBADs methods have mainly been applied to terrestrial animal production systems. The challenges in applying GBADs methods, notably the Animal Health Loss Envelope (AHLE), vary considerably by production system. The authors demonstrate how the AHLE can be calculated for rainbow trout production in England and Wales and acknowledge that its application to other systems (e.g. hatchery production, polyculture and no-feed mollusc production) is more complex. For example, in small scale tropical fish production the impact of suboptimal nutrition on production would need to be addressed. Recirculating aquaculture systems have inherent high levels of biosecurity and disease control, and thus low levels of disease. Removing the capital and running costs associated with biosecurity fundamentally changes the system and invalidates the AHLE calculation. Lack of data from many systems, notably small-scale tropical finfish farming, means that expert opinion will be needed to support the application of GBADs methods. While calculation of the AHLE is the focus of this article, it should be noted that attribution to causes and value chain modelling are needed to generate data on the wider societal impact of aquatic animal diseases (and possible interventions), which governments require to support decision-making about resource allocation.

Interpretation and utility of the Animal Health Loss Envelope as part of the Global Burden of Animal Diseases analytical process.

The Global Burden of Animal Diseases (GBADs) programme follows a multistage process to produce disease burden estimates in livestock and farmed aquatic animal production systems. The GBADs programme has broad goals of inclusivity, transparency and rigour. Meeting those goals means providing users of all levels of technical expertise with a clear explanation of the programme's output. In this way, the meaning and limitations of those results are clearly communicated, minimising the risk of misinterpretation. The first published estimates of disease burden have been calculated at farm level using a new metric called the Animal Health Loss Envelope. This metric estimates the cost of lost productivity and expenditure on disease control for profit-maximising producers by comparing current system performance to a hypothetical ‘ideal health'scenario. This ideal is a farm-specific concept and is critically different from an ideal health state when physiologically defined. The metric and its key concepts are described in this article.

Farmed fish welfare research status in Latin America: A review.

Latin America (LATAM) plays an important role in the world's production of aquatic animals and is the second most productive region in the world. Chile, Ecuador, Brazil, Mexico, Colombia, and Perú contribute 87% of LATAM aquaculture production. The fish welfare in aquaculture is of increasing public concern globally, and LATAM is no exception, growing in importance for fish farmers, authorities, and scientists. Although the topic is somewhat controversial, the welfare status of farmed fish has direct implications for their production and the sustainability of the industry. Therefore, this study analyses scientific papers on animal welfare in farmed fish, from the six countries in LATAM with the highest aquaculture production. The main objectives were to quantify the number of papers published between 2000 and 2023 on fish welfare by using scientific databases. A total of 285 papers were found for the period analysed. The country with the largest number of publications was Brazil (75.79%), followed by Chile (13.33%), Mexico (7.02%), Peru (1.75%), Ecuador, and Colombia (1.05%). Nile tilapia was the most studied species, appearing in 30.18% of the publications, with most of the studies mainly dealing with nutrition (32.28%). The growth of aquaculture is leading to joint efforts to generate knowledge on welfare issues, especially in poorly studied species with high production, to create policies that help minimize welfare risks. Given this, the insights generated by this review could be a useful addition to approaches investigating the trends and concepts of fish welfare in LATAM.

A review on protein utilization and its interactions with carbohydrate and lipid from a molecular perspective in aquaculture: An implication beyond growth.

The world's increasing need for protein faces challenges in aquaculture production. New applications and tools will need to be added at every stage of the manufacturing line to attain this expansion sustainably, safely, and effectively. Utilizing experimental methods to increase aquatic animal production has become more common as aquatic biotechnology has advanced. High-throughput omics technologies have been introduced to address these issues, including transcriptomic, metabolomic, proteomic, and genomes. But it also faces many difficulties, like other food manufacturing industries. One of the best and most durable approaches to address these issues is probably to understand nutritional requirements and modify diet based on need. Molecular approaches are a subset of multiomics technology. Previously, most of the published work was devoted to the biochemical aspects of protein-lipid interactions in biological systems. In this review, we explore this idea and highlight various works that fall under the umbrella of nutrigenomics, with a particular emphasis on protein utilization and its interactions with carbohydrates and lipids.

Horticultural Irrigation Systems and Aquacultural Water Usage: A Perspective for the Use of Aquaponics to Generate a Sustainable Water Footprint

The expansion of food production is becoming more important due to a rising world population, which is relying on food security on regional and local scales. Intensive food production systems exert a negative impact on the regional ecosystem because of agrochemical pollution and nutrient-rich water discharging into nearby rivers. Furthermore, these systems highly depend on regional water resources, causing water scarcity and soil erosion due to the overexploitation of natural resources in general. The objective of this article is to review the water usage in the two most water-intensive food production systems, agriculture and aquaculture, showing lacking areas like system management and climate change, which must be considered in the implementation of a sustainable water footprint. In addition, the review includes an analysis of the combination of both production systems in aquaponic food production and the possibilities of water saving. There are a variety of analyses related to water usage for crop and aquatic animal production, but in these analyses, there is a lack of information about system management in general, which includes cleaning processes, water substitution, pond removal, water evaporation, and, especially in aquaculture, the water usage required for industrially elaborated fish feed.

Diversity, evolution, and emergence of fish viruses.

The production of aquatic animals has more than doubled over the last 50 years and is anticipated to continually increase. While fish are recognized as a valuable and sustainable source of nutrition, particularly in the context of human population growth and climate change, the rapid expansion of aquaculture coincides with the emergence of highly pathogenic viruses that often spread globally through aquacultural practices. Here, we provide an overview of the fish virome and its relevance for disease emergence, with a focus on the insights gained through metagenomic sequencing, noting potential areas for future study. In particular, we describe the diversity and evolution of fish viruses, for which the majority have no known disease associations, and demonstrate how viruses emerge in fish populations, most notably at an expanding domestic-wild interface. We also show how wild fish are a powerful and tractable model system to study virus ecology and evolution more broadly and can be used to identify the major factors that shape vertebrate viromes. Central to this is a process of virus-host co-divergence that proceeds over many millions of years, combined with ongoing cross-species virus transmission.

Comparison of Water Quality Prediction for Red Tilapia Aquaculture in an Outdoor Recirculation System Using Deep Learning and a Hybrid Model

In modern aquaculture, the focus is on optimizing production and minimizing environmental impact through the use of recirculating water systems, particularly in outdoor setups. In such systems, maintaining water quality is crucial for sustaining a healthy environment for aquatic life, and challenges arise from instrumentation limitations and delays in laboratory measurements that can impact aquatic animal production. This study aimed to predict key water quality parameters in an outdoor recirculation aquaculture system (RAS) for red tilapia aquaculture, including dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, total ammonia nitrogen (TAN), nitrite nitrogen (NO2–N), and alkalinity (ALK). Initially, a random forest (RF) model was employed to identify significant factors for predicting each parameter, selecting the top three features from routinely measured parameters on the farm: DO, pH, water temperature (Temp), TAN, NO2–N, and transparency (Trans). This approach aimed to streamline the analysis by reducing variables and computation time. The selected parameters were then used for prediction, comparing the performance of convolutional neural network (CNN), long short-term memory (LSTM), and CNN–LSTM models across different epochs (1000, 3000, and 5000). The results indicated that the CNN–LSTM model at 5000 epochs was effective in predicting DO, TAN, NO2–N, and ALK, with high R2 values (0.815, 0.826, 0.831, and 0.780, respectively). However, pH prediction showed lower efficiency with an R2 value of 0.377.

Low-temperature immunization attenuates the residual virulence of orf074r gene-deleted infectious spleen and kidney necrosis virus: a candidate immersion vaccine.

Global aquaculture production yielded a record of 122.9 million tons in 2022. However, ~10% of farmed aquatic animal production is lost each year due to various infectious diseases, resulting in substantial economic waste. Therefore, the development of vaccines is important for the prevention and control of aquatic infectious diseases. Gene-deletion live attenuated vaccines are efficacious because they mimic natural pathogen infection and generate a strong antibody response, thus showing good potential for administration via immersion. However, most gene-deletion viruses still have residual virulence, and thus, gene-deletion immersion vaccines for aquatic viruses are rarely developed. In this study, an orf074r deletion strain (Δorf074r) of ISKNV with residual virulence was constructed, and an immunization process was developed to reduce its residual virulence at 22°C, thereby making it a potential immersion vaccine against ISKNV. Our work will aid in the development of an aquatic gene-deletion live-attenuated immersion vaccine.

Farm level bio-economic modelling of aquatic animal disease and health interventions

A farm level bio-economic model, for aquatic animal production, of the relationships between inputs (e.g. purchased animals), outputs (e.g. harvested animals) and gross margin (GM) was developed to assess ex-ante the economics of disease and animal health interventions. Feed costs were calculated from estimates of food conversion ratio (FCR), animals harvested and mortality. The model was applied to a typical grow-out rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) farm on Lake Titicaca, Peru and a typical shrimp (Paenus vannamei) farm in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. The model was used in two analyses. Firstly, an approach to assess the burden of disease developed by the Global Burden of Animal Diseases (GBADs) project was adopted. Output under conditions of ‘ideal health’ was estimated by reducing mortality to zero and removing health costs. GM in both systems increased by approximately 25% when production was kept constant (and stocking rates reduced) and more than doubled if production was allowed to rise (and initial stocking increased). The increase in GM under conditions of ideal compared with current production provided an estimate of the maximum possible benefit from improved health management. Secondly, break-even analysis was used to assess the economics of vaccination against infectious pancreatic necrosis (IPN) vaccine (rainbow trout - RBT) and probiotics (shrimp). If initial stocking was kept constant, and production allowed to rise, break-even points for the intervention (when GM was the same with and without the intervention) were achieved when mortality was reduced by 16% in RBT fry and juvenile and 28% in shrimp. If production was kept constant and benefit realised by reduced initial stocking, the break-even point was achieved for i) vaccination of RBT when mortality in fry and juveniles was reduced by 39%, and ii) probiotics in shrimp production when there was a 15% reduction in mortality (nursery and grow-out), 10% increase in shrimp weight at harvest and 10% improvement in FCR. The results demonstrate how relatively simple models, parameterised with basic farm production data, can assess the burden of disease and quantify ex-ante the potential benefit of interventions. In the absence of trial data, these analyses support decision-making by farmers. The models can be adapted for many aquaculture systems. Farm level results can be extrapolated to estimate disease burden, and benefits of interventions, at regional or national level and thus support informed decision-making and allocation of resources to health management.

Development, validation, and implementation of an ultratrace analysis method for the determination of moenomycin A, in aquatic animal products.

Moenomycin A, an antimicrobial growth promoter widely used as an additive in aquaculture feedstuffs, has been restricted for use in the European Union and China due to its potential risk of promoting resistant strains of pathogenic bacteria and causing residues in aquatic animal products. Although methods for analyzing moenomycin A in feedstuffs have been developed, no established method exists for aquatic matrices. In this study, we present, for the first time, a sensitive and validated high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) method for the determination of moenomycin A in aquatic animal products. Samples were extracted using methanol and purified with the QuEChERS method employing C18 sorbent. The aliquot was dried under a nitrogen stream, reconstituted with methanol-water solvent, and analyzed by HPLC-MS/MS. The developed method exhibited good linearity (r2 > 0.995) over a wide concentration range (1-100μg/L) and a low limit of detection (1µg/kg). Average recoveries ranged between 70 and 110% at spiked concentrations of 1, 50, and 100μg/kg, with associated intra- and inter-day relative standard deviations of 1.25 to 7.32% (n = 6) and 2.91 to 10.08% (n = 3), for different representative aquatic animal production, respectively. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first reported HPLC-MS/MS method for the quantification of moenomycin A in aquatic animal products. The new approach was effectively employed in the analysis of moenomycin A across various aquatic samples.

Interaction of Teleost Fish TRPV4 with DEAD Box RNA Helicase 1 Regulates Iridovirus Replication.

Viral diseases are a significant risk to the aquaculture industry. Transient receptor potential vanilloid 4 (TRPV4) has been reported to be involved in regulating viral activity in mammals, but its regulatory effect on viruses in teleost fish remains unknown. Here, the role of the TRPV4-DEAD box RNA helicase 1 (DDX1) axis in viral infection was investigated in mandarin fish (Siniperca chuatsi). Our results showed that TRPV4 activation mediates Ca2+ influx and facilitates infectious spleen and kidney necrosis virus (ISKNV) replication, whereas this promotion was nearly eliminated by an M709D mutation in TRPV4, a channel Ca2+ permeability mutant. The concentration of cellular Ca2+ increased during ISKNV infection, and Ca2+ was critical for viral replication. TRPV4 interacted with DDX1, and the interaction was mediated primarily by the N-terminal domain (NTD) of TRPV4 and the C-terminal domain (CTD) of DDX1. This interaction was attenuated by TRPV4 activation, thereby enhancing ISKNV replication. DDX1 could bind to viral mRNAs and facilitate ISKNV replication, which required the ATPase/helicase activity of DDX1. Furthermore, the TRPV4-DDX1 axis was verified to regulate herpes simplex virus 1 replication in mammalian cells. These results suggested that the TRPV4-DDX1 axis plays an important role in viral replication. Our work provides a novel molecular mechanism for host involvement in viral regulation, which would be of benefit for new insights into the prevention and control of aquaculture diseases. IMPORTANCE In 2020, global aquaculture production reached a record of 122.6 million tons, with a total value of $281.5 billion. Meanwhile, frequent outbreaks of viral diseases have occurred in aquaculture, and about 10% of farmed aquatic animal production has been lost to infectious diseases, resulting in more than $10 billion in economic losses every year. Therefore, an understanding of the potential molecular mechanism of how aquatic organisms respond to and regulate viral replication is of great significance. Our study suggested that TRPV4 enables Ca2+ influx and interactions with DDX1 to collectively promote ISKNV replication, providing novel insights into the roles of the TRPV4-DDX1 axis in regulating the proviral effect of DDX1. This advances our understanding of viral disease outbreaks and would be of benefit for studies on preventing aquatic viral diseases.

A Safe and Efficient Double-Gene-Deleted Live Attenuated Immersion Vaccine to Prevent the Disease Caused by the Infectious Spleen and Kidney Necrosis Virus.

Infectious diseases seriously threaten sustainable aquaculture development, resulting in more than $10 billion in economic losses annually. Immersion vaccines are emerging as the key technology for aquatic disease prevention and control. Here, a safe and efficacious candidate immersion vaccine strain (Δorf103r/tk) of infectious spleen and kidney necrosis virus (ISKNV), in which the orf103r and tk genes were knocked out by homologous recombination, is described. Δorf103r/tk was severely attenuated in mandarin fish (Siniperca chuatsi), inducing mild histological lesions, a mortality rate of only 3%, and eliminated within 21 days. A single Δorf103r/tk immersion-administered dose provided long-lasting protection rates over 95% against lethal ISKNV challenge. Δorf103r/tk also robustly stimulated the innate and adaptive immune responses. For example, interferon expression was significantly upregulated, and the production of specific neutralizing antibodies against ISKNV was markedly induced postimmunization. This work provides proof-of-principle evidence for orf103r- and tk-deficient ISKNV for immersion vaccine development to prevent ISKNV disease in aquaculture production. IMPORTANCE Global aquaculture production reached a record of 122.6 million tons in 2020, with a total value of 281.5 billion U.S. dollars (USD). However, approximately 10% of farmed aquatic animal production is lost due to various infectious diseases, resulting in more than 10 billion USD of economic waste every year. Therefore, the development of vaccines to prevent and control aquatic infectious diseases is of great significance. Infectious spleen and kidney necrosis virus (ISKNV) infection occurs in more than 50 species of freshwater and marine fish and has caused great economic losses to the mandarin fish farming industry in China during the past few decades. Thus, it is listed as a certifiable disease by the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE). Herein, a safe and efficient double-gene-deleted live attenuated immersion vaccine against ISKNV was developed, providing an example for the development of aquatic gene-deleted live attenuated immersion vaccine.

Biofloc technology as part of a sustainable aquaculture system: A review on the status and innovations for its expansion

AbstractIncreased food demand, reflecting a rising global human population, attaining 8 billion in 2022, has furthered the intensification of farmed aquatic animal production. Intensification practices can be resource demanding for micro and macronutrients, dedicated feeds, fossil fuels, chemotherapeutics, and water. Water replaces evaporative losses and may be used to dilute nutrient‐rich wastewater. As an alternative to wastewater discharge, biofloc technology (BFT) uses microbes to manage nutrient levels in production systems. A microbial community grown at high densities can assimilate waste metabolites for growth. This is promoted by increasing the carbon–nitrogen (C:N) ratio using a combination of aquafeed fed to the fish and an additional carbohydrate source, for example, starch, molasses, or bran. The microbial biomass offers a continuous and additional food source to the farmed animal, thus reducing the need for finished aquafeeds and lowering the feed conversion ratio. Although the approach relies on multiple interacting species, BFT can be deployed in relatively low technology settings. This review considers the basis of BFT and identifies areas for innovation and expansion. For example, control of light quantity and quality can influence the biofloc and hence the growth of cultured species. Research on biofloc aquaculture is dominated by studies using tilapia and shrimp, but the technology could be applied to other species, particularly species that are tolerant of biofloc conditions and not highly carnivorous. Biofloc may be a useful biosecurity tool for all or part of the life cycle, and meals made from dried biofloc may enhance the production of cultured species. The key benefits of BFT can potentially be seen in reduced water consumption, lower feed requirements, and improved fish health. This review differs from current review papers in proposing the use of a life cycle assessment in conjunction with BFT, which may be a useful tool for describing and communicating the relative benefits of biofloc systems and their wider environmental impact. This study will serve as a useful knowledge base of BFT information for students, researchers, and stakeholders alike, offering a central source of the main aspects around the culturing of biofloc, key parameters, common species used, areas of potential improvement, and a discussion on where the future of BFT may lie.

A decadal outlook for global aquaculture

A decadal outlook for global aquaculture

Advances in Viral Aquatic Animal Disease Knowledge: The Molecular Methods' Contribution.

Aquaculture is the fastest-growing food-producing sector, with a global production of 122.6 million tonnes in 2020. Nonetheless, aquatic animal production can be hampered by the occurrence of viral diseases. Furthermore, intensive farming conditions and an increasing number of reared fish species have boosted the number of aquatic animals' pathogens that researchers have to deal with, requiring the quick development of new detection and study methods for novel unknown pathogens. In this respect, the molecular tools have significantly contributed to investigating thoroughly the structural constituents of fish viruses and providing efficient detection methods. For instance, next-generation sequencing has been crucial in reassignment to the correct taxonomic family, the sturgeon nucleo-cytoplasmic large DNA viruses, a group of viruses historically known, but mistakenly considered as iridoviruses. Further methods such as in situ hybridisation allowed objectifying the role played by the pathogen in the determinism of disease, as the cyprinid herpesvirus 2, ostreid herpesvirus 1 and betanodaviruses. Often, a combination of molecular techniques is crucial to understanding the viral role, especially when the virus is detected in a new aquatic animal species. With this paper, the authors would critically revise the scientific literature, dealing with the molecular techniques employed hitherto to study the most relevant finfish and shellfish viral pathogens.

Hydrology-mediated ecological function of a large wetland threatened by an invasive predator.

Invasive species are one of the greatest threats to ecosystems, disrupting ecosystem function and leading to the collapse and extinction of native species. While populations of native fishes in the Everglades are tied to the system's natural hydrological dynamics, Asian Swamp Eels (Monopterus albus/javanensis) are drought-resistant fish first reported from Florida in 1997 and the Everglades in 2007. Using a 26-year dataset that included a 13-year baseline period prior to swamp eel arrival in Taylor Slough, we assessed population changes of common small fishes and decapods that are important prey for larger vertebrate predators. After invasion, populations of two crayfishes collapsed by >95 %, two fishes declined by >80 %, two fishes had intermediate declines of 44-66 %, and three species remained unchanged. Species most strongly reduced were those dependent on predator-free habitats at the onset of the wet season, indicating drought-resistant swamp eels have introduced novel predator effects and disrupted the hydrology-mediated production of aquatic animals that are prey for many larger predators. Ongoing Everglades restoration is designed to restore hydrological conditions that support production of crayfishes and fishes, and nesting wading birds reliant on them. Water management may have facilitated the invasion of swamp eels. Our results suggest that the continued spread of swamp eels may result in adverse consequences for Everglades trophic dynamics and potentially diminish benefits expected from the $20B+ restoration.

A meta-analysis of ecological functions and economic benefits of co-culture models in paddy fields

The co-culture of rice and poultry/aquatic animals has become a popular strategy to ensure the critical ecological functions and economic benefits of this ecosystem in recent years. Yet, quantitative synthetic effects of co-culture models on ecological functions and economic benefits in paddy fields are poorly understood. This study conducted a meta-analysis of 4707 observations from 224 published papers on the outcomes of co-culture models in paddy fields. On aggregate, co-culture models significantly reduced CH4 emissions by 14.8 % as compared with rice monoculture, but did not affect rice yields, N2O emissions, and greenhouse gas intensity (GHGI). However, significant differences in rice yields, CH4 emissions, GHGI, and economic benefits were observed among various co-culture models and rice-growing regions. Particularly, the co-culture models in East Asia significantly increased rice yields (+2.2 %), reduced CH4 emissions (–22.1 %), and GHGI (–9.4 %). Importantly, co-culture models improved rice grain quality. Furthermore, co-culture models increased soil fertility (7.8–16.2 %), nutrients content in paddy water (26.2–87.0 %), and net ecological and economic benefits (31.7–71.1 %), while decreasing diseases, pests, and weeds (37.0–84.6 %) in paddy fields. Additionally, we suggest that the production of poultry or aquatic animals that alters input and output would increase net income, and it is necessary to develop co-culture models in paddy fields according to regional differences in the agricultural environment. Therefore, our study provides a reference for maximizing ecological and economic benefits of suitable co-culture models in rice-planted areas.

Aquatic food animals in the United States: Status quo and challenges.

This review summarizes (1) the U.S. status quo for aquatic food animal production and marketing; (2) major food safety and quality issues/concerns for aquatic food animals in the United States, including fish misbranding, finfish/shellfish allergies, pathogens, toxins and harmful residues, microplastics, and genetically engineered salmon; and (3) various U.S. regulations, guidances, and detection methods for the surveillance of fishery products. Overall, fish misbranding is the biggest challenge in the United States due to the relatively low inspection rate. In addition, due to the regulatory differences among countries, illegal animal drugs and/or pesticide residues might also be identified in imported aquatic food animals. Future regulatory and research directions could focus on further strengthening international cooperation, enhancing aquatic food animal inspection, and developing reliable, sensitive, and highly efficient detection methods.

Effects of heat shock protein 70 knockdown on the tolerance of the brine shrimp Artemia franciscana to aquaculture-related stressors: Implications for aquatic animal health and production

Temperature, pH, salinity and ammonia stress adversely affect the performance and well-being of aquatic organisms, especially those used in aquaculture, a major food production sector. Management strategy to mitigate stress caused by abiotic factors in farmed aquatic organisms is scarce but is highly warranted considering the negative impact of these factors on the welfare and economic production of the farmed animals. The induction of heat shock proteins, mainly 70 kDa Hsp (Hsp70), in farmed fish and shellfish, including the live feed brine shrimp Artemia franciscana, by exposure to a non-lethal heat shock (NLHS) of 37 °C for 30 min followed by 6 h recovery period caused a significant improvement in the tolerance of the animals towards subsequent challenge with an abiotic stress. Although the protective effect of NLHS was associated with enhanced Hsp70 accumulation in these species, the induction of other members of Hsp and their collective involvement in the stress tolerance could not be ignored. This triggered an argument as to whether only Hsp70 or its combination with other Hsps was responsible for inducing stress tolerance phenotype in these species. In this study, we employed RNAi technology in the biological model organism Artemia to gain insight into the functional role of Hsp70 in stress tolerance. The results showed that upon exposure to a NLHS, the wild-type Artemia nauplii capable of producing Hsp70 exhibited significantly higher survival than the unexposed control in all the abiotic stress tolerance tests performed in this study. However, the Hsp70-deficient mutant nauplii did not exhibit increased stress-tolerant phenotypes as the survival percentage of the nauplii decreased by 29, 19, and 15%, respectively, upon challenge with a median lethal concentration of salinity, pH, and ammonia. These results suggest that Hsp70 was involved in inducing tolerance against stress caused by the abiotic factors, and hence can be a potential target for developing strategies to protect economically important aquaculture species from environmental disturbances.

Sustainable aquafeed and aquaculture production systems as impacted by challenges of global food security and climate change

Sustainable aquafeed and aquaculture production systems as impacted by challenges of global food security and climate change