Biofuel Production Process Research Articles

Converting of Cardboard Waste for Bioethanol Production Using Anaerobic ‎Fermentation

Many countries are interested in waste management technologies and their use, where these technologies contribute to ‎the disposal of pollutants that affect the environment. As a significant fraction of municipal solid waste, waste ‎paper is a potential source for producing bioethanol. Bioethanol production is a widely studied process for ‎biofuel production, as waste disposal through incineration emits dangerous greenhouse gases (which cause global ‎warming). The current work uses cardboard waste as a raw material for bioethanol synthesis through the physical, ‎chemical, and enzymatic treatments to improve glucose synthesis from cardboard waste by two-stage saccharomyces ‎and fermentation stage, using yeast extract. We relied on Trichoderma is a genus of fungi found in all soils, being the most widely cultured fungi; this fungus is ‎a producer of the cellulase enzyme that breaks down cellulose into fermented sugar and relies on three different media ‎with a carbon source and a vegetable source. (CMC) carboxymethyl cellulose agar the medium was chosen for the growth of enzyme-dissolving ‎fungi, and then the enzymatic filtrate was taken, which contains a high percentage of sugars about (12 mg/l) in the ‎optimum‏ ‏conditions pH (5.5-6) and temperature 28 °C. The purpose of the research exploitation of cellulose in cardboard and production of ethanol by fermentation process for a period ‎of 5-8 days, satisfactory results have been obtained, consumption of 5g cardboard waste produces 1%, which is equivalent to 20ml ethanol yield.

Risk-based multistage stochastic mixed-integer optimization for biofuel supply chain management under multiple uncertainties

CO2 emissions from the transportation sector account for 22% of global emissions. Blending biofuels with fossil fuels is a promising method for reducing these emissions and ensuring energy security. One of the most important and challenging aspects of the biofuel production process is the design of supply chains that integrate various types of biomasses under multiple uncertainties. The aim of this study is to address this issue by proposing a multi-stage stochastic program for strategic and tactical planning in multi-feedstock biofuel supply chain networks under uncertainties of biomass supply and biofuel demand. The proposed model minimizes the total annualized cost by selecting raw materials, positioning production facilities, placing storage facilities, and defining deferral paths for each feedstock. In addition, a new dynamic method of the conditional value at risk is adopted to consider the risk hedge. Deterministic, stochastic, and risk-based models are compared, and case studies based on the South Korean context show the effectiveness of the model and the algorithm. Computational results indicate that considering risk can increase biofuel expected production cost by up to 88%. It also shows that biomass transportation is the most affected part of the supply chain in risk assessment. Furthermore, it indicates that a value of 0.5 is the most effective risk aversion factor.

A Review Study of Immobilized Microbial-Nanoparticles: Techniques and Biotechnology Applications

Immobilization of microbial cells on nanomaterials opens up broad prospects in biotechnology applications including environmental pollution control and enhancement of biofuel production. Cell-immobilization contributes to improved microbial performance, protection of microbes, and further biomass degradation. Moreover, nanoparticles as biomass support is an advanced strategy in bioremediation. Nanoparticles are interesting for immobilizing microbes due to their unique physicochemical properties. This review throws some light on the recent advances in immobilization of microbial cells techniques onto nanoparticles as a carrier where they are subsequently used as an nano-bio-stimulator in bioprocessing. The benefits and drawbacks of immobilization techniques are included. The biotechnology applications of nano-biocatalyst in bioprocessing are covered including biosorption of pollutants from wastewater and stimulants in biofuel production processes for a green energy generation. The use of nano-bio-catalysts in bioprocesses is an effective strategy for achieving economic feasibility in many processes. Furthermore, future prospects for microbial cell immobilization techniques are discussed.

Simultaneous Extraction of Rapeseed Oil and Enzymatic Transesterification with Butanol in the Mineral Diesel Medium

Increasing environmental pollution is driving an increase in the production and use of biofuels. The cost price of biodiesel could be reduced by using low-quality oilseeds unfit for human consumption and by applying the simultaneous oil extraction and transesterification process, avoiding the oil pressure stage. The purpose of this study was to investigate the enzymatic biofuel production process (in situ) by using rapeseed with high oil acidity for simultaneous oil extraction and transesterification with a mixture of butanol and mineral diesel fuel. The investigation of the in situ process was performed using a mixture of butanol and mineral diesel and the most effective biocatalyst Lipozyme TL IM was selected. The novelty of this paper consists of the fact that mineral diesel was used as the oil extractant, and the amount chosen was such that, at the end, a mixture of fuel with a ratio 9:1 of mineral diesel to biodiesel was be produced. The experiments were carried out using ground rapeseeds under laboratory conditions. The efficiency of oil extraction was investigated by the FTIR spectrometry method, and the efficiency of transesterification was determined by the gas chromatography method. It was found that the optimal reaction duration was 7 h, reaction temperature was 40 °C, and lipase content was 6% (from the oil content in rapeseed). An oil extraction efficiency of 99.92 ± 0.04 (w/w) was observed at these conditions. A transesterification degree of 99.08 ± 0.08% (w/w) met with the requirements of the standards for biodiesel fuel. The physical and chemical properties of the produced fuel mixture met the requirements of the standards for mineral diesel and biodiesel; therefore, it can be used in diesel engines.

A new energy crop onopordum spp.: A research on biofuel properties

Onopordum spp. is investigated experimentally for biofuel properties. The plant is introduced, biofuel production processes are explained, and exergy destruction is quantified. The aim of the research is to provide a solid candidate for production and adaptation of drought-resistant renewable energy plants. The plant is not regarded as a probable source of agricultural food ethics and insignificant food properties. The onopordum plant is regarded as an ideal biofuel plant. Solid fuels in pellet form were produced from its stalk and pulp, while biodiesel was produced from its oil seeds by means of a patented method. Properties of the biodiesel that was produced from the oil of the onopordum were determined. An exergy analysis was conducted in order to find the destructed exergy by the biofuel production process. The exergy analysis is crucial to distinguish similar energy plants with similar energy contents. The onopordum pellets have lower heating value of about 15.10 MJ/kg while liquid products have values of about 40 MJ/kg. The irreversibility throughout the biofuel production process was found to be 126.692 MJ. According to the obtained quantities and the nature of the plant, the onopordum spp. has a great potential for energy plant cultivation applications.

Circular closed-loop waste biorefineries: Organic waste as an innovative feedstock for the production of bioplastic in South Africa

The impact of landfills on the environment has come under increasing scrutiny in recent years due to the confounding effects of climate change and water scarcity. There is an urgent need to reduce from landfills the greenhouse gas emissions that cause climate change, and to provide effective treatment solutions for waste, thereby diverting it from landfills. With an estimated 80 million tonnes of plastic waste entering the world’s oceans annually, the accumulation of marine plastic has become a global crisis. Plastic pollution threatens food safety and quality, human health and coastal tourism, and contributes to climate change. For these reasons, there is an urgent need to explore a bioplastic biorefinery process. This review paper examines the potential of organic waste as an alternative carbon source in the efficient and feasible microbial production of polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) and polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), which are precursors for bioplastic. More specifically, this paper presents a concept for a bioplastic biorefinery from a technological perspective, based on data from previous studies. Biofuel production processes are also assessed with the aim of integrating these processes to construct a bioplastic waste biorefinery. Garden refuse and food waste have been shown to be feasible feedstocks for the production of PHA and PHB in singular processes. Diverting these wastes away from landfills will significantly ease the environmental impacts currently associated with their disposal.Significance: A bioplastic biorefinery is a viable alternative to treat municipal organic waste. Several biofuel production processes can be integrated into a bioplastic biorefinery system. Organic waste is poorly managed in South Africa, resulting in greenhouse gas emissions. Several barriers and considerations must be overcome before implementing the technology at full scale.

Optimization-based framework for modeling and kinetic parameter estimation

To understand the mechanism of a catalytic system, computational analysis is essential. Additionally, process simulators play a fundamental role in the reproduction of models associated with various unit operations such as chemical reactors. However, due to the complexity that some chemical and kinetic reactions may present, it is often complicated to design a reactor considering stoichiometric and chemical kinetic relationships resorting to yield-based or Gibbs-type reactors. This barrier has limited on several occasions the adequate reproduction of kinetic processes, their dynamic study, and even the direct application of process intensification strategies. This work presents a generic optimization framework for solving parameter estimation and catalyst design problems. Using a stochastic optimization method in conjunction with Aspen Plus and experimental data, kinetic data values were predicted. The direct advantage of obtaining kinetic parameters with this methodology is to be able to represent the kinetics according to the Arrhenius equation, which is widely used in commercial simulators. To validate this method, a previously presented case of dimerization of isobutane to produce isooctane is used as a baseline. Once the proposed methodology was used, it was possible to obtain kinetic parameters like those obtained by the authors of the case study with an error lower than 0.1%. Finally, the strategy to determine the kinetic parameters of a more complex case, the kinetic values of the oligomerization and hydrogenation reactions present in the aviation biofuel production process by the ATJ method were developed obtaining results like those reported experimentally with an error percentage lower than 1%, and with statistical metrics with relatively good approximation.

Editorial: High-Performance Catalytic Processes for Biofuel Production

Editorial: High-Performance Catalytic Processes for Biofuel Production

Increasing Sugar Content in Source for Biofuel Production Using Agrochemical and Genetic Approaches at the Stages of BioMass Preharvesting and Harvesting

In order to optimize biofuel (including bioethanol) production processes, various problems need to be solved, such as increasing the sugar content of raw materials/biomass to gain a higher yield of the product. This task can be solved in several ways, with their own advantages and disadvantages, and an integrated approach, such as using a combination of ripening agents and phytohormones or application of a superabsorbent polymer with at least one sugar-enhancing agent, can be applied as well. Here, we reviewed several methods, including pre- and postharvest factors (light, temperature, partial replacement of potassium with magnesium, etc.), genetic modifications (traditional breeding, phytohormones, etc.), chemical ripening methods (Ethephon, Moddus, etc.), and some alternative methods (DMSO treatment, ionic liquids, etc.). The aim of this review was to provide a comprehensive, up-to-date summary of methods of increasing the carbohydrate level in plants/biomass for bioethanol production.

Techno-economic analysis of Cellulase Production by Trichoderma reesei in Submerged Fermentation Processes using a Process Simulator

Enzymes are valuable in many biofuels production processes, and their wide application has generated significant market demand in recent years. To develop lignocellulosic fuels in a biorefinery, high cost and low catalytic efficiency of cellulase are a major obstacle in the industrial use of this enzyme. A techno-economic assessment of cellulase production by Trichoderma reesei in submerged fermentation (SmF) processes was carried out in this study. SuperPro Designer Software was used to develop a process model that estimated the economic analysis of the fermentation processes by creating alternative schemes (batch and fed-batch) to improve the process. Sensitivity analysis study was carried out using Monte Carlo Software. Economic profitability indicators were used to assess cellulase yield, productivity, aeration rate, and specific power input on the unit production cost (UPC) of cellulase enzyme. Results show that the batch process had a higher aeration requirement when compared to the fed-batch process. Fed-batch process route had a shorter payback time (1.88 years), higher internal rate of return IRR (36.95%), and a more positive Net present value ($140,328,000) than the batch process. In addition, the Fed-batch process route is more economically viable than the batch process route, since the certainty of achieving its base case value of UPC is at the optimum. This study has been able to design a process route that reduces the production cost of cellulase, while increasing its availability in the market for sustainable fuel production in a biorefinery.

BIOCONVERSION OF LIGNOCELLULOSIC BIOMASS TO ETHANOL USING DIFFERENT MICROORGANISMS

Lignocellulosic material that includes hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin (lignocellulosic complex) is present in the plant cells. The hydrolysis process of the lignocellulose biomass into glucose in the presence of lignocellulytic enzymes is an area of concern in the production process of cellulosic biofuel. Microorganisms like fungi have the ability for degrading the plant cell wall by an enzyme set which acts in coordination. This moves in a direction to release glucose freely. Another challenge is the modification in the plant cell architecture. Along with this, the capacity of microorganisms in degradation by the modification of the genomes is also one of the challenges. The advantage of the biological process of pre-treatment for degradation of the lignocellulosic materials is because of its effective enzymatic system. There are two types of enzymatic systems which is of extracellular nature in fungi. These are hydrolytic and ligninolytic systems. Hydrolases are produced by hydrolytic system which degrades the polysaccharide and produces sugar. The exclusive oxidative advantage and the extracellular ligninolytic system degrades the components of lignin and also opens the rings of phenyl. The reducing sugars are then converted in ethanol production with the use of various fermentative microorganisms. In this paper, the bioconversion of lignocellulosic biomass to ethanol using different microorganisms is discussed along with other relevant aspects.

Metal-Organic Framework Supporting Fe3O4 Prepared by Microwave in Couple With NTP to Eliminate VOCs From Biofuel

In the production process of briquette biofuel, terpenes such as pinene and camphene, as well as non-terpenoid VOCs such as formic acid, acetaldehyde, and benzene, are generated during conditioning, drying and other procedures. Different catalysts of Fe3O4 supported by CoFe-ZIFs were prepared by thermal dissolution method and microwave dissolution method with changing the doping amount of iron. The structures of these catalysts were characterized by X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectrometer Fourier-Transformed InfraRed, thermogravimetric analysis (TG), and scanning electron microscope and the catalytic performance for α-pinene was tested on a fixed bed. The results show that, compared with the thermal dissolution method, the microwave dissolution method was easier to induce iron to form Fe3O4 grains with higher activity. At the same time, the grains did not affect the formation of CoFe-ZIFs structure. Fe3O4 supported on CoFe-ZIFs enhanced the catalytic activity and energy efficiency of the catalysts for α-pinene. Among the test samples, CoFe14-ZIF-W prepared by microwave method with Fe doping 14% mol exhibited the stable structural characteristics and the highest catalytic efficiency of 94.3% and energy efficiency of 8.11 g·kWh−1, which provided a further possibility of practical application for the removal of VOCs from biomass.

Technoeconomic analysis and environmental sustainability estimation of bioalcohol production from barley straw

European Union bioeconomy policy emphasizes that the production of renewable transportation fuels should replace fossil fuels as much as possible. In particular, the utilization of waste or side-stream lignocellulosic materials for fuel production is highly recommended. Moreover, future crises forcing a reliance on locally available sources for fuels and energy may become increasingly common. Barley straw, a common agricultural residue in northern Europe, is a potential raw material for bioalcohol production via fermentation. In this study, the technoeconomic and environmental sustainability of bioethanol and biobutanol production from barley straw were evaluated. When compared with fossil gasoline production and use, the greenhouse gas emissions reduction 77.6% and 72.1% were achieved for ethanol and butanol production, respectively. Thus, the emission reduction of 65% for biofuels demanded by the European Union renewable energy directive was achieved in both biofuel production processes evaluated. However, our results indicated that ethanol production from barley straw, a well-known and mature technology, was an economically feasible process (NPV positive, IRR 20%) but that butanol production with Clostridium species through acetone-butanol-ethanol fermentation has still technoeconomic challenges to overcome (NPV negative, IRR below 10%). This was mainly due to the low yield and high recovery costs of butanol.

Heterogeneous catalytic transesterification of waste vegetable oil using modified natural zeolite

Objectives: In the search of an economical process for bio-diesel synthesis, waste cooking oil was analyzed as a poten-tial feedstock. The influence of different concentrations and granulations of the zeolite catalyst on the yield and quality of the final product was also investigated.Methods: The pretreatment of waste oil was carried out using the simple processes of filtration and drying with CaCl2, after which its physicochemical properties were de-termined. Transesterification of waste oil with methanol was carried out using zeolite clinoptilolite as the catalyst. Its preparation included modification with sodium hydrox-ide, drying at 105°C and calcination at 300°C. As for the waste oil, the density, acid and peroxide number, moisture content, kinematic viscosity and flash point of the obtained biodiesels were determined by standardized methods. After the synthesis, the Fourier transformation infrared (FT-IR) spectra of the obtained biodiesel and waste cooking oil were recorded and compared.Results: The process of transesterification with methanol was found to be suitable due to the high conversion of waste oil esters under relatively mild reaction conditions. Moreover, modified natural clinoptilolite proved to be a suitable catalyst for the process of biodiesel production. At each catalyst concentration and granulation, the biodiesel yield was satisfactory and its quality parameters met the prescribed standards. Conclusion: The basic characteristics of the biodiesel ob-tained from waste cooking oil enable its potential appli-cation. Moreover, the properties of clinoptilolite, such as concentration and particle size, can be adjusted for each transesterification process to attain high quality product. The performed experiment presents an example of the efficient linking of biofuel production and waste oil dis-posal processes.

Techno-Economic Assessment of Chemical Looping Gasification of Biomass for Fischer–Tropsch Crude Production with Net-Negative CO2 Emissions: Part 2

This work presents a techno-economic analysis of a novel gasification system, chemical looping gasification (CLG), used as the primary gasification process for biofuel production through Fischer–Tropsch synthesis (FTS). Two different gas cleaning process configurations, cold-gas cleanup and hot-gas cleanup process trains, are explored, along with off-gas utilization possibilities, to study their influence on the process economics of an integrated CLG–FT process plant. Off-gas recirculation to increase Fischer–Tropsch (FT) crude production has a significant influence on reducing the levelized production costs for FT crude. The results indicate that the specific production cost estimated for a CLG–FT plant with a hot-gas cleanup train is roughly 10% lower than the case with a cold-gas cleanup train, while the total plant costs remain relatively the same for all plant configurations. In addition to this, the former has a considerably higher overall system energy efficiency of 63%, roughly 18% more than the latter, considering the co-production of FT crude, district heating, and electricity. The specific investment costs range from 1.5 to 1.7 M€2018/MWLHV, and the specific FT crude production cost ranges from 120 to 147 €2018/MWhFT. Roughly 60% of total carbon fed to the process is captured, enabling net-negative CO2 emissions. A CO2 price for negative emissions would significantly reduce the specific fuel production costs and would, hence, be competitive with fossil-based liquid fuels.

The nexus between biofuels and pesticides in agroforestry: Pathways toward United Nations sustainable development goals

The growth of global population continuously increases the demands for agroforestry-derived products, underpinning a sustainable growth of energy matrix in the sectors of food security, transportation, and industrial is momentous. The high demand for the sustainable energy sources has led to an increase in the application of pesticides associated with growing crops for the production of biofuel. In 2019, the global consumption of pesticides was 4.2 million tonnes. Case studies on life cycle assessment (LCA) of pesticides showed that toxicity is the major severe impact of pesticide usage, contributing to human toxicity (∼70%) and freshwater eco-toxicity (>50%). This alarming situation needs a solution as conventional pesticides pose various negative impacts to human and the environment, rendering the biofuel production process unsustainable. In this review, we focus on the interaction between pesticide use, biofuel production, food security for a sustainable balancing in between government benefits, environmental, and human health, aiming to track the implications and impact to the global efforts towards achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Even though, there are strict government regulations and legislations pertaining to pesticide use, and policies devised as guidelines for agroforestry sectors to implement and monitor these measures, the discrepancies still exist in between national and supranational entities. To cater the above issue, many efforts have been made to upscale the biofuel production, for example, the United States, Brazil, China and Indonesia have ventured into biofuels production from non-food-crops based feedstock while other developing nations are rapidly catching up. In this perspective, a sustainable nexus between Biofuels-Pesticides-Agroforestry (BPA) is essential to create a sustainable roadmap toward the UN SDGs, to fulfilling the energy, food, and land security. The contribution of technologies in BPA includes genetic modified crops, integrated pest and weed management with controlled release pesticides, use of nano-biopesticides is being reviewed. As a whole, the concept of biofuel processing complex (BPC) and farmers upskilling, together with the effective implementation of efficient policies and Internet of Things (IoT) would be the key to drive the BPA nexus towards fulfilment of SDGs.

Life Cycle Assessment of Biofuels Production Processes in Viticulture in the Context of Circular Economy

Globally, as the population and the living standards expanded, so did the use of energy and materials. Renewable energy resources are being used to help address the energy issue and reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHG). Because lignocellulosic biomass resources are widely available and renewable, various processes are used to convert these resources into bioenergy. In the current study, two production processes were evaluated, namely the transformation of vine shoot waste into value-added biofuels, i.e., pellets/briquettes and bioethanol. The life cycle assessment (LCA) technique was used for simulating and documenting the environmental performance of two biomass waste to biofuels pathways, possible candidates for closing loops in the viticulture production, according to the circular economy models. The SimaPro software was used to perform the LCA. The results show that the pellets/briquettes production process has a lower negative influence on the studied environmental impact categories compared to the production of bioethanol.

A Review on Opportunities and Limitations of Membrane Bioreactor Configuration in Biofuel Production.

Biofuels are a clean and renewable source of energy that has gained more attention in recent years; however, high energy input and processing cost during the production and recovery process restricted its progress. Membrane technology offers a range of energy-saving separation for product recovery and purification in biorefining along with biofuel production processes. Membrane separation techniques in combination with different biological processes increase cell concentration in the bioreactor, reduce product inhibition, decrease chemical consumption, reduce energy requirements, and further increase product concentration and productivity. Certain membrane bioreactors have evolved with the ability to deal with different biological production and separation processes to make them cost-effective, but there are certain limitations. The present review describes the advantages and limitations of membrane bioreactors to produce different biofuels with the ability to simplify upstream and downstream processes in terms of sustainability and economics.

Measurement of Transport Properties of Woody Biomass Feedstock Particles Before and After Pyrolysis by Numerical Analysis of X-Ray Tomographic Reconstructions

Lignocellulosic biomass has a complex, species-specific microstructure that governs heat and mass transport during conversion processes. A quantitative understanding of the evolution of pore size and structure is critical to optimize conversion processes for biofuel and bio-based chemical production. Further, improving our understanding of the microstructure of biochar coproduct will accelerate development of its myriad applications. This work quantitatively compares the microstructural features and the anisotropic permeabilities of two woody feedstocks, red oak and Douglas fir, using X-ray computed tomography (XCT) before and after the feedstocks are subjected to pyrolysis. Quantitative analysis of the three-dimensional (3D) reconstructions allows for direct calculations of void fractions, pore size distributions and tortuosity factors. Next, 3D images are imported into an immersed boundary based finite volume solver to simulate gas flow through the porous structure and to directly calculate the principal permeabilities along longitudinal, radial, and tangential directions. The permeabilities of native biomass are seen to differ by three to four orders of magnitude in the different principal directions, but we find that this anisotropy is substantially reduced in the biochar formed during pyrolysis. The quantitative transport properties reported here enhance the ability of pyrolysis simulations to account for feedstock-specific effects and thereby provide a useful touchstone for the biorefining community.

Recent Developments in Lignocellulosic Biofuels, a Renewable Source of Bioenergy

Biofuel consists of non-fossil fuel derived from the organic biomass of renewable resources, including plants, animals, microorganisms, and waste. Energy derived from biofuel is known as bioenergy. The reserve of fossil fuels is now limited and continuing to decrease, while at the same time demand for energy is increasing. In order to overcome this scarcity, it is vital for human beings to transfer their dependency on fossil fuels to alternative types of fuel, including biofuels, which are effective methods of fulfilling present and future demands. The current review therefore focusses on second-generation lignocellulosic biofuels obtained from non-edible plant biomass (i.e., cellulose, lignin, hemi-celluloses, non-food material) in a more sustainable manner. The conversion of lignocellulosic feedstock is an important step during biofuel production. It is, however, important to note that, as a result of various technical restrictions, biofuel production is not presently cost efficient, thus leading to the need for improvement in the methods employed. There remain a number of challenges for the process of biofuel production, including cost effectiveness and the limitations of various technologies employed. This leads to a vital need for ongoing and enhanced research and development, to ensure market level availability of lignocellulosic biofuel.