Probabilistic Protocol Research Articles

Exposures and Health Risks Associated with Elements in Diets from a Gold Mining Area.

There has been a concern of metal contamination from the mining areas which could expose the population to toxic metal through consumption of food products in the regions. Therefore, the study was conducted to analyze 18 elements using X-ray fluorescence analyzer and to assess for metal exposure through dietary intakes. Dietary recall survey instrument was used to collect consumption, demographic, and anthropometric data from 308 consumers in life-stage groups: toddlers, adolescents, and adults. Cassava, maize, rice, tomato, and yam indigenous diet samples (66) from the gold mining regions of Ghana were obtained by purposively sampling from street vendors. Principal component analysis was used to apportion pollution source. Health risks due to dietary elements were quantified using US EPA probabilistic protocols for cancer and non-cancer disease endpoints. Deficiency and overage risks of essential elements were tested against reference nutrient intakes. The element-diet-location mode of principal component analysis separated cassava and maize diets as significant vehicles for both essential and toxic elements apportioned to mining pollution source. The chronic daily intake trend revealed a preponderance for arsenic (maize: toddlers 0.009, adolescents 0.025 adults 0.010mg/kg-d) and lead (maize: toddlers 0.009, adolescents 0.026, adults 0.010mg/kg-d) exposure through maize diets compared to cassava diets. The hazard quotient showed (HQ > 1) life-stage risk differentiation for barium, although there were cumulative and pervasive health risks for all age groups based on the hazard index (Ag, Ba, Cd, Co, Hg, Mn, Mo, Sb, Sn, Sr, U, V, W, and Zr). The likely cancer risk (mode) for all life-stage groups (3 × 10-6-1 × 10-2) were also high in that they exceeded the 1 × 10-6 safety threshold. The modal margin of exposure (MoE < 1) alerted high public health concern due to lead-induced toxicities among all life-stage groups through all diet vehicles. Regarding nutritional adequacy, there were possible overage risks associated with selenium, including deficiency risks for calcium, potassium, and zinc for all life-stage groups. Toddlers and adolescents were susceptible to iron deficiency risks through cassava diets and iron overage risks through maize diets.

DEFS—Data Exchange with Free Sample Protocol

Distrust between data providers and data consumers is one of the main obstacles hampering the take-off of digital-data commerce. Data providers want to get paid for what they offer, while data consumers want to know exactly what they are paying for before actually paying for it. In this article, we present a protocol that overcomes this obstacle by building trust based on two main ideas. First, a probabilistic verification protocol, where some random samples of the real dataset are shown to buyers in order to allow them to make an assessment before committing any payment; and second, a guaranteed, protected payment process enforced with smart contracts on a public blockchain that guarantees the payment of data if and only if the provided data meet the agreed terms, and that honest players are otherwise refunded.

Performance Evaluation of Slotted Aloha Anti-Collision Protocol for Mobile RFID Tags Identification using NHPP

Radio Frequency Identification(RFID) plays an important role in identifying objects in evolving field oftheinternet of things (IoT).One important issue relates totheidentification of RFIDs. Despite wide research on this topic, not much work is performedin case when objects with RFID tags are mobile. The paperpresents a simulation-based study, employing non-homogeneous Poisson process to model variable number of tags in an interrogation area,to analyze the performance of the slotted aloha anti-collision protocol in themobile RFID tags identification. It is observedthat the maximum throughput of the protocol reduces as the number of tags increases, however, the throughput usually remains higher than that of aloha protocol in static environment.These results will help in developing better probabilistic anti-collision protocols for dynamic environment in future.

Representation Matching For Remote Quantum Computing

Many quantum computational tasks have inherent symmetries, suggesting a path to enhancing their efficiency and performance. Exploiting this observation, we propose representation matching, a generic probabilistic protocol for reducing the cost of quantum computation in a quantum network. We show that the representation matching protocol is capable of reducing the communication or memory cost to almost minimum in various tasks, including remote execution of unitary gate arrays, permutation gates and unitary conjugation, as well as the storage and retrieval of unitary gates.

Energy Efficient Multitier Random DEC Routing Protocols for WSN: In Agricultural

A network of wireless sensor (WSNs) is formed by connecting thousands of miniature nodes. They are capable of sensing, communicating wirelessly and computing parameters. The life of a wireless sensor node depends upon its energy. Thus a main technical challenge in WSN is energy saving in the network. The principal needs of any wireless sensors network is its energy efficiency and security which could be influenced by presence of various malicious nodes. The major limiting constraint for sensor nodes is its limited energy required to transmit every data packet. LEACH PEGASIS, DEC and SEP are the several WSN probabilistic routing protocols to save energy throughout data transmission. The prime goals of the protocol implementation are the energy saving and heterogeneity maintenance. The contribution of paper is to describe the fundamentals of all mentioned protocols and basic structure of WSN and a homogeneous efficient DEC based novel election probability based multitier random probability protocol or agricultural wireless sensors network is proposed. It is found that modifications are capable of selecting the cluster heads homogeneously. Due to its better distribution capacity the protocol is energy efficient. The comparative analysis of performance matrices of above protocol is accomplished.

Probabilistic and Hierarchical Quantum Information Splitting Based on the Non-Maximally Entangled Cluster State

With the emergence of classical communication security problems, quantum communication has been studied more extensively. In this paper, a novel probabilistic hierarchical quantum information splitting protocol is designed by using a non-maximally entangled four-qubit cluster state. Firstly, the sender Alice splits and teleports an arbitrary one-qubit secret state invisibly to three remote agents Bob, Charlie, and David. One agent David is in high grade, the other two agents Bob and Charlie are in low grade. Secondly, the receiver in high grade needs the assistance of one agent in low grade, while the receiver in low grade needs the aid of all agents. While introducing an ancillary qubit, the receiver’s state can be inferred from the POVM measurement result of the ancillary qubit. Finally, with the help of other agents, the receiver can recover the secret state probabilistically by performing certain unitary operation on his own qubit. In addition, the security of the protocol under eavesdropping attacks is analyzed. In this proposed protocol, the agents need only single-qubit measurements to achieve probabilistic hierarchical quantum information splitting, which has appealing advantages in actual experiments. Such a probabilistic hierarchical quantum information splitting protocol hierarchical is expected to be more practical in multipartite quantum cryptography.

A Probabilistic Broadcasting Scheme for Emergent Message Dissemination in Urban Internet of Vehicles

The Internet of Vehicles (IoV) has attracted increasing attentions for its potential of enhancing driving safety and traffic efficiency. The Multi-hop broadcast is one of the important techniques for time-sensitive data dissemination especially in emergent cases. As a result, how to wisely select the next-hop during Multi-hop routing plays an important role for performance improvement in IoV as well as dependent applications. Nevertheless, in view of the high mobility, frequent changing topology and complicated channel environment, a hazardous and thoughtless selection of the next-hop is easy to make, thus leading undesirable results. To deal with this issue, in this paper, a probabilistic broadcasting protocol for emergent message dissemination (BP-EMD) in Urban IoV is proposed. As the selection guidance for relaying node, the weighted probability is envisioned for each potential relay candidate, which is the combination of distance, link availability and packet reception ratio. After that, the node with the greatest weighted probability has been given the highest priority to relay the packet. In case that the selected relay node fails the forwarding, the other nodes available for relay will assist to disseminate the packet. In this way, the transmission reliability of the emergent messages is significantly guaranteed. Numerical results indicate that our BP-EMD can achieve higher broadcasting efficiency and less redundancy with less delivery latency, average transmission numbers and average End-to-End delay, as well as high packets delivery ratio and dissemination efficiency, compared with some classical multi-hop broadcasting protocols.

Probabilistic routing protocol with firefly particle swarm optimisation for delay tolerant networks enhanced with chaos theory

In this paper, we propose a proactive routing paradigm for delay tolerant networks (DTN) using probabilistic routing implemented via firefly particle swarm optimisation and optimised by chaos maps. DTN is a specific class of networks where there is absence of an end to end connectivity among nodes and are characterised by long or variable delays, asymmetric data rates and high error rates. The routing scheme considers the constrained environment of DTN nodes and implements a meta-heuristic paradigm to facilitate data transfer. The chaos maps further enhance the probabilistic routing parameters controlling brightness and ageing by randomising them. The protocol is implemented on ONE simulator and its performance is compared with traditional DTN routing schemes across delivery probability, average latency, overhead ratio and buffer utilisation. The simulation results show that our proposed protocol performs better than its contemporary ant PRoPHET protocol across the various performance metrics.

Probabilistic routing protocol with firefly particle swarm optimisation for delay tolerant networks enhanced with chaos theory

In this paper, we propose a proactive routing paradigm for delay tolerant networks (DTN) using probabilistic routing implemented via firefly particle swarm optimisation and optimised by chaos maps....

Adaptive Probabilistic Protocol for WSN in Different Environments

Distinguishing the nature of events in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), whether static or dynamic, determines the type of network action. The classification process is accomplished by adjusting the probability for electing the network head. In this paper, the Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) protocol based on the adaptive clustering technique is adopted with two scenarios. In the first scenario, a homogenous environment with a dynamic event is deployed to continuously send the sensing events during the entire period in order to maintain the communication between the base station and the network. Meanwhile, the second scenario deals with heterogeneous environments for static and dynamic events. The static-heterogeneous event is established through sending the data in a discrete manner, while the continuous-heterogeneous event sends the data in a dynamic event. Simulation results using Matlab 2019b indicate that the throughput and lifetime are probability dependent, where increasing the probability value to 0.2 in homogenous networks leads to increased throughput, as it reaches approximately (14402) packets compared to (12029) packets in the fixed probability scenario. In contrast to the heterogeneous network, the lifetime is increased to reach (2806) rounds compared to fixed probability, which achieves (2160) rounds.

Probabilistic Teleportation of a Single Qubit: Unearthing New W-Class of States

In this work, we propose a probabilistic teleportation protocol to teleport a single qubit via three-qubit W-states using two-qubit measurement basis. We show that for the proper choice of the state parameter of the resource state, it is possible to make success probability of the protocol very high. We deduce the condition for the successful execution of our teleportation protocol and this gives us new class of three-qubit W-states which act as a resource state. We have constructed operators that can be used to verify the condition of teleportation in experiment. This verification is necessary for the detection of whether the given three-qubit state is useful in our teleportation protocol or not. Further we quantify the amount of entanglement contained in the newly identified shared W-class of states. Moreover, we show that the W-class of shared state used in the teleportation protocol can be prepared using NMR set up.

A New Energy Efficient Multitier Deterministic Energy-Efficient Clustering Routing Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) may be incorporated with thousands of small nodes. This gives them the capability to effectively sense, communicate, and compute parameters. However, the security and life span of a WSN node is a primary concern. This paper is focused on introducing a mathematical model of a modified Multitier Deterministic Energy-Efficient Clustering (DEC) based on novel election multi-tier random probability protocol for agricultural WSNs to enhance the life span of a WSN node along with a comparison of it with existing DEC protocol. In the proposed model, the selection of cluster heads, (CH), is done based on the energy drain pattern and location of the sensor nodes, which increased the lifespan of sensor nodes. In addition, several WSN probabilistic routing protocols to save energy throughout data transmissions like Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH), Power-Efficient Gathering in Sensor Information Systems (PEGASIS), DEC, and Stable Election Protocol (SEP) are explained. Moreover, it has been found that, after some mathematical modification in existing DEC routing, it will be capable to give a more positive result and reduce the energy drain in WSN nodes using a selective cluster head technique based on residual energy of sensor nodes. The DEC protocol is also compared with our proposed modified protocol for showing the energy-efficiency. The energy efficiency of clustering is associated with the field of energy sustainability of wireless sensor networks which is in the scope of Symmetry journal.

A probabilistic protocol for the assessment of transition and control

Transition to turbulence dramatically alters the properties of fluid flows. In most canonical shear flows, the laminar flow is linearly stable and a finite-amplitude perturbation is necessary to trigger transition. Controlling transition to turbulence is achieved via the broadening or narrowing of the basin of attraction of the laminar flow. In this paper, a novel methodology to assess the robustness of the laminar flow and the efficiency of control strategies is introduced. It relies on the statistical sampling of the phase space neighborhood around the laminar flow in order to assess the transition probability of perturbations as a function of their energy. This approach is applied to a canonical flow (plane Couette flow) and provides invaluable insight: in the presence of the chosen control, transition is significantly suppressed whereas plausible scalar indicators of the nonlinear stability of the flow, such as the edge state energy, do not provide conclusive predictions. The methodology presented here in the context of transition to turbulence is applicable to any nonlinear system displaying finite-amplitude instability.

Probability of a successful attack of double costs on a blockchain system with a probabilistic consensus protocol

Most traditional information systems are built on a centralized hierarchical principle. In such systems, there is a single decision-making center, to which other nodes are subordinate, therefore, they must certainly perceive and follow centralized instructions. In addition, the presence of a decision center causes additional threats, since to disrupt the operation of the entire system it is enough to destroy or compromise the main node. Decentralized systems are more stable and secure, especially in a situation of complete distrust of each other. They are more reliable for storing important information, such as digital assets, registries, inventories and the like. That is why blockchain technologies for building decentralized systems are becoming increasingly popular and widespread. However, when deploying decentralized systems, the task of coordinating the state of various network nodes arises. This is especially true when the nodes operate in a mode of complete distrust of each other, that is, if situations are possible where the proportion of nodes is controlled by intruders. This problem is solved using consensus protocols, that is, such rules and algorithms that, when executed, achieve the same state for most nodes of a decentralized system. This article discusses probabilistic consensus protocols, that is, when the occurrence of a certain state is a random event. Coordination of system states is possible in various ways, including possible false cases that are imposed by attackers. For example, attackers can double their electronic assets by spending them twice. Of course, if most nodes are controlled by intruders, the system will not work properly. But even with a smaller share of resources, attackers can also with a certain probability impose a false state of the system and thus implement a double-spend attack. The article discusses various situations and possible states of the system, analytically deriving formulas for calculating the probability of a successful double spending attack on a blockchain system with a probabilistic consensus protocol. When conducting research, the model of independent players was used, which, unlike the well-known works, takes into account the complete set of elementary events and system states. Based on the results obtained, recommendations are given on the safe functioning of a decentralized system.

Analytical modeling of the attack of double costs on a blockchain system with a probabilistic consensus protocol

To build safe and reliable distributed decentralized systems using blockchain technology, a continuous chain of blocks is created, the unauthorized modification of which is not allowed by the applied cryptographic mechanisms. This is achieved by using unidirectional, collision resistant and search prototypes of cryptographic functions whose hash values from previous blocks are included in subsequent blocks. As a result, an unauthorized change in at least one bit of data in the previous blocks will be immediately detected. However, in the case of distributed storage of information, there is an additional requirement of synchronization of individual chains of blocks that are stored by various nodes. These and other issues are resolved by applying consensus building mechanisms, through which, after a certain sequence of actions, a continuous sequence of blocks (blockchain chain) becomes the same on all nodes of a decentralized network. This work examines one of the main vulnerabilities of blockchain systems built by consensus with probabilistic completion, namely, a double-spend attack. Based on the model of “independent players”, an analytical expression is obtained for calculating the probability of an attacker's successful double-spending attack. The quantitative values of the probability of a successful attack are given for various abilities of an attacker, a different number of generated blocks and a different race duration. Using computer simulation, the calculated values are experimentally verified. All empirical estimates were obtained with high accuracy (relative error not higher than 1%) and reliability (confidence level of at least 99%). To confirm the adequacy of the results obtained, a comparison of empirical results with theoretical calculations is given.

Probabilistic Forwarding of Coded Packets on Networks

We consider a scenario of broadcasting information over a network of nodes connected by noiseless communication links. A source node in the network has some data packets to broadcast. It encodes these data packets into $n$ coded packets in such a way that any node in the network that receives any $k$ out of the $n$ coded packets will be able to retrieve all the original data packets. The source transmits the $n$ coded packets to its one-hop neighbours. Every other node in the network follows a probabilistic forwarding protocol, in which it forwards a previously unreceived packet to all its neighbours with a certain probability $p$ . We say that the information from the source undergoes a “near-broadcast” if the expected fraction of nodes that receive at least $k$ of the $n$ coded packets is close to 1. The forwarding probability $p$ is chosen so as to minimize the expected total number of transmissions needed for a near-broadcast. We study how, for a given $k$ , this minimum forwarding probability and the associated expected total number of packet transmissions varies with $n$ . We specifically analyze the probabilistic forwarding of coded packets on two network topologies: binary trees and square grids. For trees, our analysis shows that for fixed $k$ , the expected total number of transmissions increases with $n$ . On the other hand, on grids, a judicious choice of $n$ significantly reduces the expected total number of transmissions needed for a near-broadcast. Behaviour similar to that of the grid is also observed in other well-connected network topologies such as random geometric graphs and random regular graphs.

Improving the dissemination of messages in MANETs through an optimal carrier

Nodes in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) sometimes do not have a completely connected path between them because the connectivity of a mobile network cannot be maintained for long periods. An intermittently connected MANET (ICMANET) is usually a delay tolerant network (DTN), which is capable of tolerating lengthy delays. It is not possible to achieve full connection with a DTN. The probabilistic routing protocol using the history of encounters and transitivity (PRoPHET) is the most popular DTN routing protocol. However, PRoPHET has demerits such as high resource consumption, message spread and duplication. To overcome these disadvantages, this paper proposes a method for selecting an intermediate node as an optimal carrier to disseminate messages from the source to the destination. Simulation results indicate that the proposed method provides improved delivery ratio, fewer delays and lower resource consumption, message spread and duplication than the conventional PRoPHET and fuzzy PRoPHET protocols.

Consideration of different travel strategies and choice set sizes in transit path choice modelling

Path choice modelling is typically conducted by considering a subset of paths, not the universal set of all feasible paths as this is computationally challenging. This study proposes a two-stage modelling approach. In the first stage, it develops a new probabilistic importance sampling protocol by using fuzzy logic. In the second stage, it tested different structures of the discrete choice models, where different strategy attributes are considered along with the traditional variables. The results prove that the new sampling protocol performs better than traditional sampling protocol. Again, the inclusion of the strategy attributes proves to yield better prediction. The results of the study recommend considering different strategy attributes in the path generation process as well as in the transit assignment models. The study also discusses the effect of the choice set size on the model performance. Household travel survey data of south-east Queensland, Australia is used to develop the models.

Strong Privacy-preserving Two-party Scalar Product Quantum Protocol

Under the assumption that the parties do not change their private inputs during the whole protocol execution, we present a probabilistic quantum protocol for secure two-party scalar product without the help of any third party, which can ensure the security of the strong privacy of two parties. Especially, the communication complexity of this protocol achieves O(1), and thus it is more suitable for applications with big data.

Improving the Dissemination of Messages in MANETs through an Optimal Carrier

Nodes in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) sometimes do not have a completely connected path between them because the connectivity of a mobile network cannot be maintained for long periods. An intermittently connected MANET (ICMANET) is usually a delay tolerant network (DTN), which is capable of tolerating lengthy delays. It is not possible to achieve full connection with a DTN. The probabilistic routing protocol using the history of encounters and transitivity (PRoPHET) is the most popular DTN routing protocol. However, PRoPHET has demerits such as high resource consumption, message spread and duplication. To overcome these disadvantages, this paper proposes a method for selecting an intermediate node as an optimal carrier to disseminate messages from the source to the destination. Simulation results indicate that the proposed method provides improved delivery ratio, fewer delays and lower resource consumption, message spread and duplication than the conventional PRoPHET and fuzzy PRoPHET protocols.