Private Regard Research Articles

Vicarious Experiences with Police Violence: Examining Psychosocial Factors that Predict Black Individuals’ Negative Affect and Intentions to Engage in Collective Action

In the present study, we examined whether willingness to participate in collective action and feelings of negative affect in response to the police killing of a Black man can be explained by individual differences in racial identity, identification with the shooting victim, and feeling personally threatened by the shooting incident. Participants ( N = 328 Black university students) completed online questionnaires after reading one of two non-fictional vignettes of a fatal police shooting of a Black American. Three components of racial identity were assessed (racial centrality, private regard, and public regard). Results indicated that all three racial identity variables predicted negative affect through a sequence of greater identification with the shooting victim and concerns about personal threat. When predicting collective action, however, only racial centrality predicted the outcome via these sequential mediators. Implications for research and theory on vicarious racism and the need for mental health resources in communities are discussed.

Effects of Qualitative Interview Participation on Muslim American Identity Integration: A Mixed-Method Investigation

ABSTRACT Participation in research studies about one’s identity has been found to act as a form of counseling intervention. This mixed-method convergent parallel design study sought to examine whether participating in a 45-minute one-on-one semi-structured interview on Muslim American identity integration affected participants’ views of their identity one year later. Participants included 29 ethnically diverse second-generation Muslim Americans residing in the U.S. Midwest who were retained at one-year follow-up from a semi-structured identity interview of 53 participants. Participants completed a survey with measures of identity, identity integration, and open-ended questions inquiring how the study influenced them. Descriptive quantitative analyses and thematic analysis of qualitative data were used to examine the participants’ perceptions of the interview. Qualitative responses displayed five themes (Self-Understanding and Reflection, Affirmation, Connecting With In-Group, “Normal” Conversation Topic, and No Change) aligning with the three primary domains incorporated in ethnic identity development. The blendedness of the participants’ Muslim and American identities, American centrality, and participants’ self-reported positive private regard toward their American identity were lower at Time 2 compared to Time 1. More research is needed regarding the influence of participating in identity-based mixed-methods studies on Muslim American identity formation.

Ethnic-racial discrimination and socialization: Short-term longitudinal effects on Black and Latinx young adults' ethnic-racial identity.

Short-term longitudinal data were used to examine how racial discrimination, cultural socialization (CS), and preparation for bias (PB) related to Black and Latinx young adults' public and private regard. Black (n = 90) and Latinx (n = 54) young adults (Mage = 20 years) were assessed at two time points, 6 weeks apart. Racial discrimination predicted lower levels of public regard 6 week later; whereas PB predicted greater levels of private regard. CS moderated the relations between racial discrimination and private regard suggesting that at low levels of CS, discrimination related to lower private regard 6 weeks later. Findings demonstrate the short-term effects of racial discrimination and suggest that ethnic-racial socialization is a salient cultural resource for young adults.

The Relationship Between Racial Attitudes and Disordered Eating Behaviors in Black Men and Black Women.

Black individuals remain underrepresented in disordered eating research, despite evidence that both Black men and women present with disordered eating behaviors. Culturally-informed theoretical frameworks suggest that these behaviors may be linked to race-related sociocultural experiences, such as aspects of racial identity. While studies have focused on racial identity commitment, the association between attitudes toward one's racial identity and disordered eating remains underexplored. The present study examines whether positive attitudes toward one's Blackness and Black culture are associated with disordered eating. In a cross-sectional online sample of Black men and women (N = 458), we measured self-reported attitudes toward Blackness (i.e., centrality and private regard) and disordered eating behaviors (i.e., purging, binge eating, excessive exercise, and drive for thinness). In pre-registered linear regression models, private regard was negatively associated with purging and binge eating. Across all models, centrality was not associated with disordered eating. On average, Black women reported greater drive for thinness whereas Black men reported higher excessive exercise scores. This is the first study to demonstrate associations between racial attitudes and disordered eating among Black men and women. Our findings affirm unique correlates of disordered eating among Black people and suggest that positive attitudes toward one's Blackness and Black culture may be a protective factor against the development of disordered eating.

Using Critical Race Mixed Methodology to Explore African American College Students’ Experiences with Racial Microaggressions

AbstractThere is a dearth of social justice or critical mixed methods research approaches, particularly in higher education. Critical Race Mixed Methodology (CRMM) is a type of critical mixed methods research that combines Critical Race Theory (CRT) and mixed methods research (DeCuir-Gunby in Educational Psychologist 55, 244-255, 2020). However, there are limited examples of CRMM within higher education research (Johnson & Strayhorn in Journal of Diversity in Higher Education 16, 539-553, 2023). Our study further operationalizes CRMM through the explication of an explanatory sequential mixed methods exploration of African American college students’ experiences with racial microaggressions, where the qualitative findings are used to expand upon the quantitative findings (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2017). The study uses Critical Race Theory (Bell, 1992; Ladson-Billings & Tate in Teachers College Record 97, 47-68, 1995; Solórzano & Huber, 2020) to focus on how African American college students’ experiencing of racial microaggressions influences their racial identity and feelings of belonging in historically white institutions (HWIs). The quantitative findings (n = 97) indicated that private regard (racial identity) protected students’ sense of belonging when experiencing racial microaggressions. The qualitative findings (n = 15) explored students’ stories regarding their experiences with racial microaggressions, focusing on their feelings of belonging. Through our discussion, we advance the use of mixed methods in higher education research to better understand the racialized experiences of African American college students and demonstrate how CRMM can be used to integrate quantitative and qualitative findings.

Evaluating a School-Based Intervention on Adolescents’ Ethnic-racial Identity in Sweden

Finding developmentally appropriate ways to support youth in understanding their own ethnic-racial identity is needed, particularly in contexts like Sweden where such support is not the norm. This preregistered longitudinal study examined whether an 8-week school-based intervention, the Identity Project, impacted youth ethnic-racial identity exploration (participation and search), resolution, private regard, and centrality. Participants were 509 adolescents in the 10th grade (Mage = 16.28, SD = 0.80; 65% self-identified girls; 52% minoritized ethnic background), who were randomized into an intervention or wait-list control group and assessed at baseline and three times post-intervention. The findings indicated an initial and simultaneous effect of the intervention only for exploration participation and resolution but did not show the expected chain of effects with earlier exploration predicting later resolution. Growth models indicated a greater increase in exploration participation over time for the intervention group than the control group. The findings indicate a mixed picture about the effectiveness of the intervention, with effects primarily narrowly targeted to exploration participation, but nevertheless highlight the potential for supporting Swedish youth in engaging with their ethnic-racial identities.

A dynamic identity process approach to veg*nism: Does identity status matter among meat‐reducers?

AbstractThe current study investigated meat‐reducers' (vegan, vegetarian, and flexitarian) dietary identities using an identity process approach. Drawing on identity development theories, we aimed to (i) classify meat‐reducers from the United Kingdom and United States (N = 375) based on their level of identity exploration and commitment, and (ii) examine the effect of dietary identity status on diet and group‐based behaviours. Findings demonstrated evidence for three identity clusters: achieved (high exploration and high commitment), foreclosed (lower exploration and higher commitment), and diffused (low exploration and low commitment) meat‐reducers. Vegans were more likely to display an achieved dietary identity, whereas the majority of flexitarians indicated a diffused identity. More importantly, identity status had significant effects on all outcome measures, with achieved meat‐reducers reporting greatest dietary strictness, greatest centrality and private regard, but lowest public regard, as well as most negative attitudes towards meat‐eaters and greatest activism. We discuss how investigating dietary identities with a ‘process framework’ may point to a more inclusive view of social identities among people who follow a plant‐based diet.

Parenting in African American families: Profiles of general and culturally specific dimensions of parent-adolescent relationships during late adolescence.

Developmental and parenting frameworks suggest that factors at the individual-level and multiple levels of adolescents' contexts are important determinants of how African American parents prepare their children to live in a racially stratified society. Using a person-centered approach, this study explored heterogeneity in profiles of African American parent-adolescent relationships (PARs) using indicators of parent-reported ethnic-racial socialization (cultural socialization, preparation for bias), general parenting practices (autonomy support, monitoring, behavioral control), and relationship quality (warmth, communication, conflict). We also examined how adolescents' characteristics, parents' personal and psychological resources, and contextual sources of stress and support contributed to profile membership. Data were from the Maryland Adolescent Development in Context Study (1991-2000) and consisted of 589 African American caregiver-adolescent dyads (caregivers: 89% female; 57.2% married; adolescents: 50.7% female; Mage = 17, SD = 0.64, range = 15-19 years old). Latent profile analysis revealed four profiles: (a) No-Nonsense High Socializers, (b) Indulgent Average Socializers, (c) Unengaged Silent Socializers, and (d) Authoritative Cultural Socializers. Adolescent characteristics (gender, depression, and problem behavior), parents' personal and psychological resources (parenting self-efficacy, centrality, private regard, and depression), and contextual sources of stress and support (stress: economic hardship, family stress, neighborhood disadvantage and support: marital status, family cohesion, family organization) were correlated with profile membership. Findings suggest that variability in African American PARs is shaped by an extensive set of individual and contextual factors related to adolescents and the family and neighborhood context. These findings have important implications for future research and how to target multiple potential levers for change in African American parenting practice.

A preliminary investigation of longitudinal associations between ethnic-racial identity and critical consciousness among Black and Latinx youth.

In order for parents, educators, and communities to support racially/ethnically minoritized youth to resist and heal from White supremacy, it is important to examine how youths' beliefs about their ethnic-racial identity (ERI) and critical consciousness (CC) around racism inform one another. Despite this need, limited empirical research examines whether these processes are related across adolescence. The present two-wave longitudinal study investigates whether ERI content (i.e., centrality, private regard) and CC (i.e., critical social analysis, interpersonal antiracism actions) are associated with one another among Black and Latinx youth N = 233; young women (55.6%); young men (44.4%); M = 14.96 years old, SD = 1.46. Autoregressive cross-lagged panel models suggested that youths' centrality at W1 was positively and significantly associated with a critical social analysis at W2, and critical social analysis at W1 was positively and significantly associated with private regard at W2 for both groups. Involvement in interpersonal antiracism actions at W1 was positively and significantly associated with private regard at W2 for both groups. Group differences existed in the link between centrality at W1 and interpersonal antiracism actions at W2. Results indicate that ERI and CC may be viable entry points into stimulating youths' capacity to challenge racism, although there is promise in activating antiracism action to further stimulate ERI development. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Racial-ethnic socialization among Asian American families with preadolescent children.

The COVID-19 pandemic and resurgence of overt anti-Asian racism have prompted many Asian American parents to grapple with ways to discuss race and ethnicity with their children. Racial-ethnic socialization (RES) has been shown to have promotive and protective influences on Asian American adolescents' adjustment but remains understudied among Asian American families with younger children. This study examined parent (i.e., racial-ethnic identity [REI], experiences of discrimination) predictors of RES among Asian American families with preadolescent-aged children and moderation by parental generational status. We surveyed a sample of 404 Asian American parents (Mage = 38.4, SD = 7.0; 66% female) with 6- to 12-year-olds (Mage = 8.9, SD = 2.0; 56% boys). Findings revealed that parents with higher levels of REI centrality were more likely to report engaging in cultural maintenance practices and those with higher levels of REI private regard were less likely to minimize race. Parents' experiences of racial discrimination were also associated with more frequent cultural maintenance practices and discussions of anti-Asian discrimination. Tests for moderation by parental generational status indicated that the positive association between experiences of racial discrimination and discussions of anti-Asian discrimination was stronger among first-generation than second+ generation parents. Findings highlight that among Asian American parents of preadolescent-aged children, RES approaches and practices are nuanced and differentially responsive to parents' views of their own REI, their experiences of racial discrimination, and by generational status. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Parental identity and socialization mediate parental racial discrimination's impact on child adjustment

AbstractObjectiveThe study explored the mediating role of Chinese American parents' ethnic–racial identity (ERI) in linking their discrimination experiences, ethnic–racial socialization (ERS), and their children's mental health, testing whether neighborhood racial diversity and perceived Chinese density moderated these mediation paths.BackgroundDuring COVID‐19, Chinese American families faced increased discrimination, impacting their mental well‐being. However, few studies have examined how parents' discrimination experiences influence their ERI, ERS practice, and ultimately their children's mental health difficulties.MethodData from 294 Chinese immigrant parents (Mage = 44.28, 79% female) were collected in two waves, 2020 and 2021. Path analysis tested if parental discrimination affects their ERI and ERS, and children's mental health. Multigroup analysis assessed if mediation models varied for families living in communities with low versus high racial diversity or Chinese density.ResultsParental racism‐related stress at T1 had significant indirect effects on parental ERS practices (higher use of maintenance of heritage culture and lower use of avoidance of outgroups practice) at T2 via parental ERI (greater private regard) at T2. Parental racial discrimination (perceived sinophobia in the media and racism‐related stress) at T1 had significant indirect effects on children's mental health difficulties at T2 via parental ERS practices (use of maintenance of heritage culture and avoidance of outgroups practices) at T2. The neighborhood racial diversity moderated the mediation model.ConclusionThese findings advance the understanding of both individual (i.e., parental ERI) and contextual factors (i.e., neighborhood racial diversity) in the complex associations between parents' discrimination experiences and children's mental health difficulties.

Vicarious racism, ethnic/racial identity, and sleep among Asian Americans.

Vicarious racism-witnessing or hearing about other individuals of one's ethnic/racial group being the target of racism-has been salient among Asian Americans during the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic. There is emerging evidence that such experiences adversely impact several health-related outcomes, including sleep. The present study examines associations between vicarious racism and subjective sleep duration and quality, and the potential moderating role of ethnic/racial identity (ERI). Multivariable regression models assessed the association between vicarious racism, private regard, and centrality on self-reported sleep disturbance and duration. The sample consisted of an online sample of 600 Asian American adults (Mage = 38.55, SDage = 17.11; 65.17% female; 60% ≥ Bachelor's degree) recruited from May to June 2020. Vicarious racism was associated with compromised sleep quality and duration, including after adjustment for sociodemographic variables that have been linked to sleep. Private regard toward one's own ethnic/racial group and centrality of ethnicity/race to self-identity buffered the association between vicarious racism and sleep quality and duration. Adverse effects of high vicarious racism on sleep quality and duration were lessened among respondents reporting high levels of ERI private regard and centrality. Findings from this study extend research on racism and sleep by examining vicarious racism, an understudied facet of racism, and by focusing specifically on Asian Americans and in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. Future research and practice should consider expanding research on discrimination to include a broader range of unjust experiences. Vicarious racism contributes to health hazards experienced by Asian Americans during the COVID-19 pandemic. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

How discrimination experiences relate to racial/ethnic identity and mental health across first- and second-generation Vietnamese American adolescents.

Racial/ethnic discrimination has been linked to behavioral and emotional problems in youth from marginalized groups. However, the psychological experience associated with discrimination may differ between immigrant and nonimmigrant youth. Race-based discrimination may impact an adolescent's view of their own group (private regard) and/or their sense of how others view their group (public regard). Owing to differences in racialization, immigrant adolescents may be affected differently by experiences of discrimination than their U.S.-born peers. The present study examined whether nativity moderated the paths from racial/ethnic discrimination to private and public regard to mental health problems among Vietnamese American youth. Surveys were completed by 718 Vietnamese American 10th and 11th graders (Mage = 15.54 years, 61.4% female, 38.6% male). In this sample, 21.2% were first-generation (i.e., born outside of the United States) and 78.8% were second-generation (i.e., born in the United States with at least one parent born outside of the United States). Multigroup path analysis tested the direct and indirect effects of racial/ethnic discrimination on behavioral and emotional problems via private and public regard and whether associations differed for first- versus second-generation youth. Racial/ethnic discrimination was associated with lower public regard, but not private regard, for both first- and second-generation Vietnamese American youth. Public regard was negatively associated with behavioral and emotional problems only among second-generation youth. No indirect effects were significant. Findings suggest differences in racialized experiences, as well as opportunities to support second-generation Vietnamese American and other marginalized youth from immigrant families from the mental health impacts of discrimination. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Black adolescents' experiences with racial socialization, racial identity, and critical reflection of need for school change of racial inequity

AbstractThis preliminary investigation explored associations between Black adolescents' experiences with parental racial socialization (racial pride and racial barrier messages), dimensions of racial identity (centrality and private regard), and critical reflection regarding the need for school change of racial inequity. One hundred fifty‐one (78 girls; 73 boys) high school students from the southeastern United States were sampled for this self‐report cross‐sectional investigation. Findings revealed significant, positive total effects of racial pride and racial barrier socialization on critical reflection. Furthermore, a significant specific indirect relationship between racial pride socialization and critical reflection through centrality (small to medium effect), but not private regard. Unexpectedly, no significant indirect associations of perceived racial barrier socialization on critical reflection through racial identity dimensions were found. Implications for our findings are discussed for school‐based practitioners and policymakers.

Discrimination and depressive symptoms among Black and Asian American college students: Shared and group-specific processes of self-concept.

Black and Asian American emerging adults are at higher risk of experiencing racial/ethnic discrimination and related distress. Racial/ethnic discrimination may increase vulnerability for depressive symptoms by diminishing individuals' positive self-concept. While low global self-esteem has been noted as a crucial process linking discrimination and depressive symptoms, it is unclear if it plays a unique role beyond other relevant aspects of one's self-concept: racial/ethnic private regard and centrality. Moreover, although different racial/ethnic groups are known to experience discrimination in distinctive ways, little is known about how relative processes of self-esteem and racial/ethnic identity may differ across these groups. We investigated the generalizability and specificity of discrimination to distress linkages across Asian and Black Americans. Undergraduate Black (N = 109) and Asian American (N = 90) students self-reported racial/ethnic discrimination, depressive symptoms, and self-concept. Global self-esteem indirectly linked the association between discrimination and depressive symptoms among Black Americans beyond the effects of racial/ethnic identity. Only among Black Americans, discrimination was associated with lower private regard. Finding highlight group-specific processes underlying Black and Asian Americans' experiences of discrimination and depressive symptoms. Findings also demonstrate shared processes of discrimination-depressive symptoms linkage across groups and underscore the need to address the pervasive issues of racism and discrimination. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Is being anti-vegan a distinct dietarian identity? An investigation with omnivores, vegans, and self-identified “anti-vegans”

Adding to research on the form and content of anti-vegan sentiment, recent scholarship has identified a group of individuals who self-subscribe as “anti-vegan”. Here, we sought to determine whether anti-veganism might reflect a distinct dietarian identity with its own unique ideological profile. Two-hundred and fourteen vegans, 732 omnivores, and 222 self-identified “anti-vegans” were assessed using a survey methodology that included the Dietarian Identity Questionnaire and ideological markers related to dark humour, social dominance orientation (SDO), speciesism, male-role norms, moral relativism, and attitudes toward science. Our analysis revealed a dietarian identity unique to anti-vegans. The dietary patterns of anti-vegans were more central to their identity than for omnivores, though marginally lower than vegans. Like vegans, anti-vegans scored highly on dietarian measures of private regard and personal dietary motivations, and lower than omnivores on public regard. The diets of anti-vegans were more morally motivated than omnivores. However, anti-vegans scored higher than both omnivores and vegans on a number of ideological measures including dark humour, SDO, speciesism, male-role norms, moral relativism, and distrust of science. Somewhat surprising, anti-vegans held greater trust than omnivores in the science of plant-based nutrition. We discuss the unique dietarian identities of anti-vegans, considering both intra-group differences of omnivores and anti-vegans (e.g., in right-wing ideology), and inter-group similarities of vegans and anti-vegans (e.g., in diet centrality).

Ethnic-racial identity and ethnic-racial socialization competency: How minoritized parents "walk the talk".

Ethnic-racial identity (ERI) has important implications for individual psychosocial functioning as well as familial processes. For example, parents' ERI can shape children's developmental contexts through ethnic-racial socialization (ERS). Yet, existing research has tended to focus on the content or frequency of socialization messages themselves rather than on internal factors like socialization competence. Such competence, as reflected through confidence, skills, and stress, represents critical dimensions that permeate the socialization process and can impact the delivery of messages. The present study examines whether parents' ERI (i.e., private regard, centrality, exploration) is related to perceptions of their socialization competence. Data from 203 Black, 194 Asian American, and 188 Latinx parents (N = 585, Mage = 44.46 years, SD = 9.14, 59.70% mothers) of adolescents between the ages of 10-18 were collected via Qualtrics panels. Across all parents, private regard, centrality, and ethnic-racial exploration were positively associated with perceived confidence and skills in engaging in ERS. Regard was additionally associated with lower socialization stress. The results point to consistent benefits of ERI in helping parents navigate ERS, furthering the understanding of ERI's developmental implications through parents' comfort with and ability to "walk the talk" with their children. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Personality, dietary identity, mental and sleep health in vegans and vegetarians: A preliminary cross-sectional study.

Plant-based diets have gained popularity over the past decade. However, research regarding mental and sleep health benefits of following plant-based diets are conflicting. As there are associations between mental/sleep health and various personality traits, and personality may differ between individuals who follow different diets, in this preliminary study, we examined the associations between mental and sleep health and (i) personality and (ii) dietary identity in individuals who follow vegan and vegetarian diets. Cross-sectional data on sociodemographic, personality traits, dietarian identity, overall mental health, depression, anxiety, stress, and sleep quality were collected from 57 vegan/vegetarian participants between the ages of 18-40. After controlling for various sociodemographic and lifestyle factors, linear regression models revealed that (i) higher dietarian private regard was a significant predictor of better overall mental health, (ii) lower levels of extraversion and higher levels of empathy predicted depression, (iii) higher levels of neuroticism and empathy predicted anxiety, (iv) higher levels of neuroticism, dietarian centrality, and neuroticism × centrality predicted stress, (v) higher levels of conscientiousness, lower levels of dietarian centrality, but higher levels of personal motivation and dietary strictness, as well as conscientiousness × centrality, conscientiousness × personal motivation, and conscientiousness × strictness predicted better sleep quality. These preliminary findings suggest that not only personality traits, but also dietary identity was indeed related to mental and sleep health in individuals who follow plant-based diets.

Racial identity and sense of belonging: Moderators of Black college students' institutional race-related stress and anxious arousal.

Race-related stress due to institutional racism is a pervasive reality for Black college students and contributes to poor mental health outcomes such as anxious arousal symptoms. One framework which may account for this association between chronic stress and anxious arousal symptoms is the reserve capacity model. This study investigated whether racial identity dimensions (racial centrality, public regard, private regard) and sense of belonging to the racial group contribute to this population's reserve capacity and buffer the association between institutional race-related stress and anxious arousal symptoms. A sample of 134 Black college students completed racial identity, sense of belonging, and mental health questionnaires. These data were subjected to multiple regression analysis to assess the main and interactive effects of institutional race-related stress and dimensions of interest as predictors of anxious arousal symptoms. The analysis indicated that higher levels of institutional race-related stress, racial centrality, and public regard were each associated with higher levels of anxious arousal while higher levels of private regard and sense of belonging were associated with lower levels of anxious arousal. Further investigation of interaction effects revealed that high levels of sense of belonging and low levels of public regard, respectively, buffered the association between institutional race-related stress and anxious arousal symptoms. These findings illustrate how certain racial identity dimensions and sense of belonging contribute to the reserve capacity of Black students experiencing institutional race-related stress. Results are further discussed in the context of extant literature on Black racial identity and the university context. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Effects of bicultural competence and racial identity on intrinsic motivation: The mediating role of belonging to Native American tribal colleges

Since the arrival of Europeans in the Americas, Native Americans (NA) have experienced historical trauma (Brave Heart & DeBruyn, 1998). However, sources of socio-cultural resilience continue to exist within this population (Kirmayer et al., 2011). Rather than pathologize NAs, we attempt to better understand the implications of their sources of socio-cultural resilience. We sought to examine how bicultural competence and racial identity affect intrinsic motivation and how these relationships are mediated by a sense of belonging. Self-reported data for this study was gathered from a sample of NAs (N = 219) attending a tribal college. Results suggest that bicultural competence and the racial identity dimensions of racial centrality and private regard are related to intrinsic motivation, and these relationships are mediated by a sense of belonging. These findings suggest that tribal colleges are a likely source of socio-cultural resilience, facilitating success for NAs in an ever-changing world.