Private Regard Research Articles

Teacher-Based Racial Discrimination: The Role of Racial Pride and Religiosity Among African American and Caribbean Black Adolescents

This study explored the extent to which private regard and religiosity beliefs serve as protective factors for school bonding among African American and Caribbean black adolescents who experience racial discrimination in school. Findings are drawn from a nationally representative sample of (n = 810) African American and (n = 360) Caribbean black adolescents (52% girls) aged 13–17 (Mage = 15, SD = 1.42) years. Results suggest that perceiving racial discrimination from teachers was associated with lower levels of school bonding for African American and Caribbean black adolescents. For African American adolescents, perceiving more racial discrimination from teachers and reporting lower private regard beliefs was associated with less school bonding. The findings for Caribbean black adolescents revealed that endorsing moderate levels of religiosity and perceiving higher rates of teacher discrimination was associated with less school bonding. The developmental significance and implications for future research are discussed.

Pubertal timing, racial identity, neighborhood, and school context among Black adolescent females.

This study bridges the empirical research on pubertal timing effects, racial identity, and school and neighborhood context to understand the pubertal development and depression link among Black adolescent females. We examined whether racial identity content dimensions moderated the relation between pubertal timing and depressive symptoms among Black adolescent females and the moderating capacity of school and neighborhood racial composition. We administered measures of pubertal development, racial identity, and depressive symptoms to a sample of 217 Black adolescent females, aged 14 to 18. We assessed racial centrality, private regard, and public regard and used archival data to obtain the racial composition of participants' neighborhoods and schools. The results indicated that high racial centrality levels were linked to depressive symptoms for adolescent girls with late pubertal timing relative to their early counterparts, which was stronger for girls attending not majority Black schools. The results also indicated that low public regard levels were linked to depressive symptoms among adolescent girls with early pubertal timing relative to their late counterparts, which was stronger for girls attending not majority Black schools. The current study provides evidence that racial identity and school racial context moderate the effects of pubertal timing differentially for early and late maturing Black girls. The results support the notion that the psychological effects of pubertal timing on internalizing symptoms are context dependent. (PsycINFO Database Record

Promoting Resilience Among African American Girls: Racial Identity as a Protective Factor.

This study examines school climate, racial identity beliefs, and achievement motivation beliefs within a cultural-ecological and risk and resilience framework. Data were drawn from a longitudinal study of 733 (Mage =14.49) African American adolescent girls. A linear mixed effects model was used to determine if racial identity dimensions moderated the relationship between school climate and achievement motivation beliefs across four waves. Results revealed that racial identity (private regard and racial centrality) and ideology (nationalist) beliefs were associated with higher achievement motivation beliefs over time, while racial centrality and private regard, and a sense of belonging served as protective factors. The findings contribute to the importance of racial identity beliefs and increase the visibility of African American girls.

Interrelations among dimensions of ethnic-racial identity during adolescence.

Two approaches to conceptualizing ethnic-racial identity development dominate the literature within developmental psychology-1 focused on the process of ethnic-racial identity development, including exploration and commitment, and another focused on the evaluative components of identity, including private and public regard. In this study, we examined the interrelations among exploration, commitment, private regard, and public regard across three years in an ethnically diverse sample of Black, Dominican, Chinese, and White early adolescents. To examine the temporal precedence of multiple identity components, we used autoregressive latent trajectory analysis, which estimated time specific relationships, as well as covariation between latent factors. Findings indicated significant cross-time relationships among all identity components. For the most part, exploration predicted commitment, private regard, and public regard but not the reverse. Relationships between commitment and regard were reciprocal. Findings varied across ethnic-racial groups. We discuss the implications of our work for understanding identity processes. (PsycINFO Database Record

Racial identity in the context of pubertal development: Implications for adjustment.

The developmental significance of youths' racial identities during adolescence is well established. It is less clear how puberty, a normative process, influences the relationship between racial identity and adjustment outcomes during adolescence. This study examined whether puberty moderates the relationship between racial identity dimensions and internalizing and externalizing outcomes, and whether the effects of puberty and racial identity on internalizing and externalizing outcomes vary by child sex. Data are drawn from African American families (N = 176; 48% female) who participated in Waves 4 and 5 of Phase III of the NICHD SECCYD. Results indicated that fifth-grade boys who felt more positively about being African American and were less advanced in their pubertal development evidenced less internalizing problems 1 year later, after adjusting for previous internalizing levels; however, for boys further in their pubertal development, having higher private regard was associated with more, rather than less, internalizing problems. Additionally, fifth-grade boys and girls who were less advanced in their pubertal development and believed that society views African Americans in a more positive light (higher public regard levels) engaged in more externalizing behaviors 1 year later, after adjusting for previous externalizing levels. Findings offer new insights into the independent and synergistic linkages between racial identity and pubertal development in their relation to internalizing and externalizing outcomes among African American youth. (PsycINFO Database Record

Shifting Contexts and Shifting Identities: Campus Race-Related Experiences, Racial Identity, and Academic Motivation Among Black Students During the Transition to College

This study examined Black college students’ (N = 309, 70% women) racial identity beliefs over their freshman year. Using latent class cluster analysis, we identified clusters reflecting patterns of change and stability in students’ racial centrality (importance of race to overall self-concept), private regard (group pride), and public regard (perceptions of others’ views of Blacks). Racial identity change clusters were distinguished by campus experiences (racial discrimination, interracial friendships, and campus racial climate). Racial identity change clusters predicted end-of-year academic motivation (competence, affect, interest/curiosity, and persistence). Findings suggest the importance of examining critical transitions in identity development and highlight the deleterious effects of stigmatizing campus experiences on identity. Findings also highlight ways students’ racial identity beliefs may help promote academic motivation.

Parental Cultural Socialization and Adolescent Private Regard: Exploring Mediating Pathways Through Daily Experiences.

Using longitudinal experience sampling data from 214 ethnic/racial minority adolescents (Wave 1 Mage =15.24), the present study investigated how the longitudinal effect of parental cultural socialization on adolescent private regard was mediated through various daily pathways and novel constructs. Both the mean levels and variability of adolescents' ethnic feelings (i.e., private regard) and social interactions (i.e., intragroup contact) in daily situations, as well as the situational association between intragroup contact and private regard, emerged as mediators. Greater cultural socialization promoted greater and more stable ethnic feelings and interactions, as well as their situational association, all of which promoted private regard over time. This study provides a framework to explore how development occurs in daily lives.

The Influence of Black Identity on Wellbeing and Health Behaviors.

The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of Black identity on wellbeing and health behaviors. Data from the third year (wave) of a longitudinal cohort study (N=1316) from a large, majority Black, Protestant church of 16,000 members located in Houston, Texas, were used to conduct secondary data analyses. Univariate analyses were used to obtain participants' sociodemographic and health characteristics. ANCOVA and linear regression analyses and Bonferroni adjustments were used to examine the influence of the centrality, public and private regard aspects of Black identity as measured by the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity subscales on wellbeing (CES-D scores and self-reported general health) and health behaviors (diet and physical activity levels). Associations were noted between fruit consumption and centrality (F (95,1216)=2.27) p=.046); soda consumption and private regard (F (5,1214)=3.04; p=.010); public regard (F (2,1186)=4.70; p=.009) and physical activity levels; self-reported general health status and private (F (4,1219)=4.78; p=.001) and public regard (F (4,1211)=8.53; p<.001). Psychological wellbeing was negatively associated with regard (private (B=-0.030; p<.001) and public regard (B=-0.060; p<.001)). Findings suggest that racial identity remain an important factor to consider in addressing health disparities. Racial identity influences mental health, general health, diet and the physical activity levels. Utilizing identity congruent health promotion interventions may positively impact mental, exercise levels, self-reported general health and diet.

Race-Based Rejection Sensitivity and Racial Identity Predict African American Students’ Reactions to the Fatal Shooting of Other African Americans: Personal Threat and Identification with Shooting Victims as Mediators

ABSTRACTAfrican American university students (n = 365) read a description of the fatal shooting of African Americans in incidents that most participants perceived as involving racial bias. Then they completed measures about their distress concerning these incidents, identification with the shooting victims, and feeling personally threatened by the shootings. Higher race-based rejection sensitivity and several components of racial identity (higher racial centrality, higher private regard, and lower public regard) predicted more distress about the shootings via increased feelings of personal threat. Only higher racial centrality was related to more distress based on how much participants identified with the shooting victims. The results document how indirect experiences with race-related shootings may elicit distress about these incidents.

Individual differences in the impact of vicarious racism: African American students react to the George Zimmerman trial.

This research focused on how race-based rejection sensitivity (RS-Race) and components of racial identity intensify negative psychological reactions to an incident of vicarious racism. We examined how these individual difference variables directly and/or indirectly predicted African American students' reactions to the trial of George Zimmerman in the killing of the African American teenager, Trayvon Martin. In Study 1, 471 African American students completed measures of RS-Race, thought intrusions about the Zimmerman trial, and outcome variables (negative affect about the Zimmerman trial and forgiveness for Mr. Zimmerman). In Study 2, 304 African American students completed measures of racial identity (centrality, private regard, and public regard), thought intrusions about the Zimmerman trial, negative affect, and forgiveness. In Study 1, higher RS-Race was either directly and/or indirectly (via thought intrusions) related to more negative affect and lower forgiveness. In Study 2, high racial centrality and low public regard either directly and/or indirectly (via thought intrusions) predicted more negative affect and lower forgiveness. RS-Race and specific components of racial identity are likely to sensitize African Americans to incidents of racism that happen to other African Americans, leading to negative psychological reactions when these events occur. (PsycINFO Database Record

Peer Influence on Ethnic-Racial Identity Development: A Multi-Site Investigation.

The peer context features prominently in theory, and increasingly in empirical research, about ethnic-racial identity (ERI) development, but no studies have assessed peer influence on ERI using methods designed to properly assess peer influence. We examined peer influence on ERI centrality, private, and public regard using longitudinal social network analysis. Data were drawn from two sites: a predominantly Latina/o Southwestern (SW) school (N=1034; Mage=12.10) and a diverse Midwestern (MW) school (N=513; Mage=11.99). Findings showed that peers influenced each other's public regard over time at both sites. However, peer influence on centrality was evident in the SW site, whereas peer influence on private regard was evident in the MW site. Importantly, peer influence was evident after controlling for selection effects. Our integration of developmental, contextual, and social network perspectives offers a fruitful approach to explicate how ERI content may shift in early adolescence as a function of peer influence.

Academic Identity: A Longitudinal Investigation of African American Adolescents' cademic Persistence.

Adolescence is a vulnerable period for the development of academic identification and academic persistence, particularly among African American adolescents. The present study investigated how cultural assets (i.e., private regard and racial centrality) and academic assets (i.e., academic curiosity and academic self-esteem) influence African American adolescent boys' (n = 109) and girls' (n = 153) academic persistence over time. Additionally, we explored whether oppositional academic identity mediated the relationships between academic and cultural assets and academic persistence. Data were drawn from a cross-sectional longitudinal study. Results indicated significant direct effects of academic assets on academic persistence at Times 1 and 2 for boys and at Times 1, 2, and 3 for girls. Furthermore, oppositional academic identity mediated the relationship between boys', but not girls', cultural assets and academic persistence at Time 1. These findings have implications for understanding the role of assets in the lives of African American youth.

Racial Socialization, Private Regard, and Behavior Problems in African American Youth: Global Self-Esteem as a Mediator.

Racial socialization messages appear to have varying impacts on the adjustment of African American youth. To further explore this, we examined how two types of racial socialization messages might influence African American youth internalizing and externalizing behavior. The Youth Self Report was used to measure these behavior outcomes. Given that racial socialization messages may not be directly linked to behavior outcomes, we considered private regard, an aspect of racial identity, to serve as a mediator. Additionally, we examined global self-esteem as a mediator of the complex dynamic between racial socialization messages and behavior outcomes. Adolescents in our study completed paper assessments. Majority of the participants were female (56 %) and reside in a metropolitan area in the Mid-Atlantic region. Adolescent's ages ranged from 14 to 17 years with the average age being 15 years old. Path analysis revealed cultural pride and alertness to discrimination messages varied in their relation to private regard. Results also indicated a strong linkage between private regard, global self-esteem, and internalizing behaviors. Interestingly, the linkage between private regard, global self-esteem and externalizing behaviors was not as robust. Further, private regard appeared to directly and indirectly impact externalizing behaviors. The implications of these findings for racial socialization strategies, identity development (racial and global) as it pertains to behavior problems for African American adolescents are discussed.

Ethnic Identity and Familism Among Latino College Students

The present study examined the longitudinal associations among familism respect and obligations values, ethnic centrality and private regard, and ethnic self-identification. Data were drawn from a socioeconomically diverse sample of Latino students attending a predominantly White university. The selection of a White label was associated with less positive private regard, less ethnic centrality, and less strong endorsement of familism respect and obligation values at the start of the academic year compared to those students who selected a national origin label. There was a complex relationship between ethnic identity and familism values over time. Ethnic centrality supported the growth in familism respect values across time, but familism respect values also predicted later growth in ethnic private regard. Our results highlight the fact that ethnic identity processes and familial cultural values can mutually influence each other in emerging adulthood for Latinos.

Climate Perceptions and Identity Interference Among Undergraduate Women in STEM

In a study of 639 female undergraduates in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) majors, we found that the relation between a negative academic climate and more interference between identities as women and as scientists, and lower science performance perceptions, was mediated by lower psychological well-being. We also found partial support for gender identity (centrality, private regard, and public regard) as a buffer of the link between climate/interference and psychological well-being. Specifically, gender centrality buffered the link between identity interference and well-being. Gender public regard buffered the association of both negative climate and interference with well-being, and gender private regard exacerbated the link between interference and well-being. We discuss these results in terms of the benefits that gender identification may provide for women in STEM and suggest that educators create networks for women in STEM, while working to reduce sexism and improve academic climates. Online slides for instructors who want to use this article for teaching are available on PWQ 's website at http://pwq.sagepub.com/supplemental

Acculturation conflict among Latino youth: Discrimination, ethnic identity, and depressive symptoms.

Patterns of parent-adolescent conflict differ between immigrant and nonimmigrant families living in the United States (Fuligni, 1998). Despite this, there is limited empirical literature examining the nuanced nature of parent-adolescent conflict in immigrant families. To fill this gap, the current study examined the role of 2 types of conflict (i.e., general and acculturation) in predicting psychosocial outcomes (i.e., depressive symptoms and ethnic identity) among Latino adolescents, and whether these relationships differ within the context of peer discrimination. All survey administration was completed in the participating school's cafeteria. The sample consisted of 7th through 10th graders (n = 172) with a mean age of 14.01 years (SD = 1.32.) The sample consisted of 53% females, and was primarily Mexican in origin (78%). As hypothesized, parent-adolescent acculturation conflict uniquely predicted greater depressive symptoms and lower ethnic private regard, even when controlling for parent-adolescent general conflict. However, acculturation conflict predicted lower ethnic private regard only in the presence of greater peer discrimination. More specifically, peer discrimination moderated the relation between acculturation conflict and ethnic private regard such that adolescents who reported the highest levels of acculturation conflict and peer discrimination reported the lowest levels of ethnic private regard. These results suggest that for Latino youth and their families, acculturation conflict may be particularly problematic, as compared with general conflict. In addition, youth who face ethnicity-based stressors in both familial and school contexts are especially at risk in their ethnic identity development. (PsycINFO Database Record

Ethnic identity, school connectedness, and achievement in standardized tests among Mexican-origin youth.

The aim of this study was to investigate the association between school connectedness and performance in standardized test scores and whether this association was moderated by ethnic private regard. The study combines self-report data with school district reported data on standardized test scores in reading and math and free and reduced lunch status. Participants included 436 Mexican-origin youth attending a middle school in a southwestern U.S. state. Participants were on average 12.34 years of age (SD = .95) and 51.8% female and 48.2% male. After controlling for age, gender, free and reduced lunch status, and generational status, school connectedness and ethnic private regard were both positive predictors of standardized test scores in reading and math. Results also revealed a significant interaction between school connectedness and ethnic private regard in predicting standardized test scores in reading, such that participants who were low on ethnic private regard and low on school connectedness reported lower levels of achievement compared to participants who were low on ethnic private regard but high on school connectedness. At high levels of ethnic private regard, high or low levels of school connectedness were not associated with higher or lower standardized test scores in reading. The findings in this study provide support for the protective role that ethnic private regard plays in the educational experiences of Mexican-origin youth and highlights how the local school context may play a role in shaping this finding. (PsycINFO Database Record

Understanding Perceptions of Racism in the Aftermath of Hurricane Katrina: The Roles of System and Group Justification

The present study examined perceptions of racism in events that occurred during the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina among a community sample of New Orleans area residents. Drawing on system justification theory, we examined system justification motives (i.e., meritocracy beliefs) and group justification motives (i.e., group identity) as predictors of perceptions of racism among African Americans and European Americans. Compared to African Americans, European Americans perceived much lower levels of racism in Katrina-related events. Furthermore, meritocracy beliefs were negatively related to perceptions of racism among both African Americans and European Americans. However, private regard (a component of group identity) was positively related to perceptions of racism among African Americans, but negatively related to perceptions of racism among European Americans. The results suggest that both system and group justification motives independently predict perceptions of racism in an important real-world event. Furthermore, system and group justification motives appear to operate in opposition for African Americans, but in tandem for European Americans.

Reasons for electronic cigarette use beyond cigarette smoking cessation: A concept mapping approach

IntroductionElectronic cigarettes (ECIGs) continue to grow in popularity, however, limited research has examined reasons for ECIG use. MethodsThis study used an integrated, mixed-method participatory research approach called concept mapping (CM) to characterize and describe adults' reasons for using ECIGs. A total of 108 adults completed a multi-module online CM study that consisted of brainstorming statements about their reasons for ECIG use, sorting each statement into conceptually similar categories, and then rating each statement based on whether it represented a reason why they have used an ECIG in the past month. ResultsParticipants brainstormed a total of 125 unique statements related to their reasons for ECIG use. Multivariate analyses generated a map revealing 11, interrelated components or domains that characterized their reasons for use. Importantly, reasons related to Cessation Methods, Perceived Health Benefits, Private Regard, Convenience and Conscientiousness were rated significantly higher than other categories/types of reasons related to ECIG use (p<.05). There also were significant model differences in participants' endorsement of reasons based on their demography and ECIG behaviors. ConclusionsThis study shows that ECIG users are motivated to use ECIGs for many reasons. ECIG regulations should address these reasons for ECIG use in addition to smoking cessation.

To be or not to be: How ethnic/racial stereotypes influence ethnic/racial disidentification and psychological mood.

The current study explores disidentification. Ethnic/racial disidentification is defined as psychological distancing from a threatened social identity to preserve a positive sense of self. The first study goal was to explore how daily ethnic/racial stereotype appraisal is related to ethnic/racial disidentification. The second goal was explore the association between disidentification and psychological mood. In both cases, centrality and private regard were considered individual differences that might moderate daily associations. Ethnic/racial minority young adults (Mage = 20.63 years, SD = 1.49; N = 129) completed a 21-day daily diary, including ethnic/racial stereotype appraisal, ethnic/racial disidentification, and mood. At the end of the study, participants completed measures of ethnic/racial centrality and private regard. The effect of daily stereotype appraisal on disidentification depended on feelings of centrality and private regard. Young adults reporting high centrality and high private regard reported higher disidentification on days on which they reported more stereotype appraisal. These same young adults also reported higher negative mood on days on which they reported disidentification. Young adults reporting high private regard reported less positive mood on days on which they reported disidentification, whereas those reporting low private regard reported more positive mood. This article discusses the role of ethnic/racial disidentification as a normative negotiation of threats to ethnic/racial identity development. For young adults who report high levels of centrality and private regard, daily encounters with ethnic/racial stereotypes are associated with more disidentification, but that disidentification comes at a cost in the form of more negative daily mood.