Private Regard Research Articles

Ego strengths, racial/ethnic identity, and well-being among North American Indian/First Nations adolescents.

This study investigated associations between ego strengths (psychosocial development), racial/ethnic identity using Multi-Ethnic Identity Measure-Revised (exploration, commitment) and Multidimensional Measure of Racial Identity (centrality, private regard, public regard) dimensions, and personal adjustment/well-being among 178 North American Indian/First Nations adolescents who resided and attended school on reserves. As predicted, ego strengths related directly with centrality, private regard, and the adjustment measures; the moderation of ego strengths for exploration, commitment, and private regard reflected adverse functioning for those with less than advanced ego strengths. As well, ego strengths mediated associations between centrality and private regard with several measures of personal well-being. Practical and theoretical implications are considered.

Religious Identity, Religious Participation, and Psychological Well-Being in Asian American Adolescents

Religiosity plays a prominent spiritual and social role in adolescents' lives. Yet, despite its developmental salience, few studies have examined normative changes in religiosity or the implications of these changes for psychological well-being. We explored longitudinal variation in and associations between religiosity, as defined by private regard, centrality, and participation in religious activities, and diverse indicators of well-being including self-esteem, depressive symptoms, positive and negative affect, and both the presence of and search for meaning in life. The participants were two cohorts of Asian American high school students (N = 180; 60 % female) followed for 4 years and living in the southeastern US. Using hierarchical linear modelling and controlling for gender and generational status, results revealed that religious identity (i.e., regard, centrality) did not normatively increase or decrease over time, but participation increased. Religious identity was significantly associated with higher self-esteem, greater positive affect, the presence of meaning in life, and reduced depressive symptoms (for females), and participation was positively associated with positive affect and the presence of meaning. Our results and discussion emphasize the utility of further examining how religion plays a role in health and well-being, particularly among immigrant youth.

African Americans and Trayvon Martin: Black Racial Identity Profiles and Emotional Responding

Public opinion polls suggest that many African Americans viewed the death of Trayvon Martin as a race-related event (Gabbidon and Jordan 2013; Pew Research Center 2013). This exploratory online investigation examined African Americans’ general reactions to the fatal shooting of Trayvon Martin as well as the link between Black racial identity cluster profiles and race-related stress reactions (i.e., anger and sense of safety). Participants had a range of reactions, including questioning whether the shooting was racially motivated as well as self-reporting anger and sadness. Three Black racial identity profile groups were identified. Profile group 1 consisted of individuals with each of the different Black racial identity attitude types being below the mean (i.e., undifferentiated). Group 2 consisted of individuals with lower levels of centrality and nationalist ideologies with all other racial identity types being above the mean (i.e., integrationist). Finally, group 3 consisted of individuals with a positive African American identity as indicated by greater levels of centrality, private regard, and nationalist ideology (i.e., race focused). Only their public regard, assimilationist and humanist ideology attitudes fell below the mean. Further analysis indicated that individuals with a race focused Black racial identity cluster profile specifically self-reported higher levels of anger and were more likely to indicate feeling unsafe after learning about Trayvon Martin’s death.

Swinburne and Tennyson's Peerage

Algernon Charles Swinburne's poetic relations with Alfred Tennyson were mostly respectful. Where Swinburne differed, he still acknowledged the abilities of the Poet Laureate. There is one major exception: Swinburne's violent reaction—never noticed before—to Tennyson's acceptance of a barony in 1883. This article explores Swinburne's response and assesses the rich tangle of public and private reasons beyond the poet's well-known republican hatred of the House of Lords. What emerges is a cultural moment when the question of Swinburne's identity as a political poet and English culture's understanding of how politics and poetry were related at the end of the nineteenth century became luminously visible. What also emerges are the striking, conflicted ways in which Swinburne's personal feelings about political verse were inextricable from his private regard for class.

Racial and gender identity among Black adolescent males: an intersectionality perspective.

A considerable amount of social identity research has focused on race and racial identity, while gender identity, particularly among Black adolescents, remains underexamined. The current study used survey data from 183 Black adolescent males (13-16 years old) to investigate the development and relation between racial and gender identity centrality and private regard, and how these identities impact adjustment over time. It was found that dimensions of racial and gender identity were strongly correlated. Levels of racial centrality increased over time while gender centrality, and racial and gender private regard declined. In addition, racial and gender identity uniquely contributed to higher levels of psychological well-being and academic adjustment. These findings are discussed within the context of existing identity theories and intersectionality theory.

Associations of racial discrimination and parental discrimination coping messages with African American adolescent racial identity.

Research links racial identity to important developmental outcomes among African American adolescents, but less is known about the contextual experiences that shape youths' racial identity. In a sample of 491 African American adolescents (48% female), associations of youth-reported experiences of racial discrimination and parental messages about preparation for racial bias with adolescents' later racial identity were examined. Cluster analysis resulted in four profiles of adolescents varying in reported frequency of racial discrimination from teachers and peers at school and frequency of parental racial discrimination coping messages during adolescents' 8th grade year. Boys were disproportionately over-represented in the cluster of youth experiencing more frequent discrimination but receiving fewer parental discrimination coping messages, relative to the overall sample. Also examined were clusters of adolescents' 11th grade racial identity attitudes about the importance of race (centrality), personal group affect (private regard), and perceptions of societal beliefs about African Americans (public regard). Girls and boys did not differ in their representation in racial identity clusters, but 8th grade discrimination/parent messages clusters were associated with 11th grade racial identity cluster membership, and these associations varied across gender groups. Boys experiencing more frequent discrimination but fewer parental coping messages were over-represented in the racial identity cluster characterized by low centrality, low private regard, and average public regard. The findings suggest that adolescents who experience racial discrimination but receive fewer parental supports for negotiating and coping with discrimination may be at heightened risk for internalizing stigmatizing experiences. Also, the findings suggest the need to consider the context of gender in adolescents' racial discrimination and parental racial socialization.

What’s Color Got To Do With It? Skin Color, Skin Color Satisfaction, Racial Identity, and Internalized Racism Among African American College Students

Although skins tone perceptions influence the African American community, less is known about how skin color satisfaction differs across complexion. Employing an intersectionality framework, the current study assessed (a) the relationships between gender, self-reported skin color, skin color satisfaction, and the private regard aspect of racial identity; (b) whether skin color satisfaction moderates the relationship between perceived skin color and racial identity; and (c) whether internalized racism relates to skin color satisfaction. African American college students ( N= 191) provided their perceived skin color and completed the private regard subscale of the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity, the Nadanolitization Scale, and an abbreviated version of the Skin Color Satisfaction Scale. Hierarchical multiple regressions were conducted to test most hypotheses. Although skin color was not significantly associated with skin color satisfaction, skin color satisfaction moderated the relationship between perceived skin color and private regard. Darker skin African Americans high in skin color satisfaction reported higher private regard than those low in skin color satisfaction. Additionally, internalized racism significantly predicted skin color satisfaction. Psychosociological implications are discussed.

Through which looking glass? Distinct sources of public regard and self-esteem among first- and second-generation immigrants of color.

How we think other people see us has long been believed to influence how we see ourselves, a phenomenon known as reflected appraisal. Among members of ethnic minority groups and immigrant groups, however, inconsistent patterns have been found. This study examined how immigrants' views of their ethnic group and of themselves are tied the appraisals of specific others. We hypothesized that members of the heritage culture and of White Americans are implicated in the reflected appraisal process to differing degrees. Moreover, we hypothesized that immigrants (first-generation) and the children of immigrants (second-generation) are affected differently by the appraisals of White Americans and heritage culture members. Results showed that perceived appraisal by members of the heritage culture was linked to how immigrants felt about their group and to their personal self-esteem. Perceived appraisal of White Americans was not related to how immigrants felt about their group and was only weakly related to personal self-esteem. The results highlight the distinction between public regard from the heritage culture and from White Americans and underscore the importance of the former for immigrants' private regard and self-esteem.

Psychosocial Benefits of Cross‐Ethnic Friendships in Urban Middle Schools

To examine the unique functions of same- and cross-ethnic friendships, Latino (n = 536) and African American (n = 396) sixth-grade students (Mage = 11.5 years) were recruited from 66 classrooms in 10 middle schools that varied in ethnic diversity. Participants reported on the number of same- and cross-ethnic friends, perceived vulnerability, friendship quality, and the private regard dimension of ethnic identity. Whereas same-ethnic friendships were uniquely associated with stronger private regard, more ethnic diversity and cross-ethnic friendships were uniquely associated with less perceived vulnerability. Multilevel structural equation modeling tested whether cross-ethnic friendships mediated the diversity-vulnerability relation. Although cross-ethnic friendships did not significantly mediate this relation at the classroom level, these friendships predicted less vulnerability at the individual student level.

Emotional Response Profiles to Racial Discrimination

The present study examined the association between racial identity and patterns of emotional responses to blatant and subtle racial discrimination vignettes in a sample of 129 African American college students. Using latent profile analyses, we identified eight patterns of emotional responses to the scenarios. Multinomial logistic regression analyses revealed that racial identity was associated with these response patterns. Specifically, private and public regard were related to profiles in the blatant condition, while private regard, centrality, and nationalist ideology were related to profiles in the subtle condition. These findings suggest that there are varied ways in which African American youth respond emotionally to discrimination and that the significance and meaning that one places on race may affect these responses.

A Moderated Mediation Model: Racial Discrimination, Coping Strategies, and Racial Identity Among Black Adolescents

This study examined a moderated mediation model among 314 Black adolescents aged 13-18. The model included general coping strategies (e.g., active, distracting, avoidant, and support-seeking strategies) as mediators and racial identity dimensions (racial centrality, private regard, public regard, minority, assimilationist, and humanist ideologies) as moderators of the relation between perceived racial discrimination and depressive symptoms. Moderated mediation examined if the relation between perceived racial discrimination and depressive symptoms varied by the mediators and moderators. Results revealed that avoidant coping strategies mediated the relation between perceptions of racial discrimination and depressive symptoms. The results indicated that avoidant coping strategies mediated the relation between perceived racial discrimination and depressive symptoms among youth with high levels of the minority/oppressive ideology.

Exploring the effect of in‐group and out‐group race‐related stressors on anxiety among Asian Pacific Islander American students

AbstractThis cross‐sectional study examined (a) the impact of in‐group (own‐group conformity pressure) and out‐group (perceived discrimination, stereotype confirmation concern) race‐related stressors; (b) the direct effect of 2 in‐group‐ (private regard, centrality) and 1 out‐group‐oriented (public regard) racial identity factors; and (c) the potential protective role of these identity factors on the impact of stressors on the anxiety of Asian Pacific Islander American (API) college students attending a racially diverse university. As predicted, positive feelings toward one's own racial group (i.e., private regard) had a significant negative relationship with anxiety. Private regard protected APIs from own‐group conformity pressures and stereotype confirmation concerns. Findings address the diverse university context that may create acculturative pressures or stereotype confirmation concern conditions.

Does being first in family matter? The role of identity in the stigma of seeking help among first and non-first in family university students

The transition from secondary school to university is often perceived as stressful, perhaps more so for students who are the first in their family to seek higher education, as they might face challenges unique to their situation. Yet, the majority are less likely to acknowledge problems and are unlikely to engage in help-seeking behaviour. The present study, which focuses on first in family students transitioning from secondary school to university, examined relations between identification (private regard, public regard, compatibility) and the stigma (self and other) associated with help-seeking in different domains (academic and mental health), and the moderating role of first in family status. Implications for these findings are addressed within the context of stigma reduction initiatives.

Ethnic Identity in Everyday Life: The Influence of Identity Development Status

The current study explores the intersection of ethnic identity development and significance in a sample of 354 diverse adolescents (mean age 14). Adolescents completed surveys five times a day for 1week. Cluster analyses revealed four identity clusters: diffused, foreclosed, moratorium, and achieved. Achieved adolescents reported the highest levels of identity salience across situations, followed by moratorium adolescents. Achieved and moratorium adolescents also reported a positive association between identity salience and private regard. For foreclosed and achieved adolescents reporting low levels of centrality, identity salience was associated with lower private regard. For foreclosed and achieved adolescents reporting high levels of centrality, identity salience was associated with higher private regard.

Racial Identity From Adolescence to Young Adulthood: Does Prior Neighborhood Experience Matter?

This study examined the influence of earlier neighborhood experiences on trajectories of racial centrality and regard among Black youth. Data were drawn from a sample of Black 11- to 14-year-old youth (N = 718) in the Maryland Adolescent Development in Context Study, a data set that permits the examination of structural and subjective neighborhood influences. Results suggest that centrality increases, whereas public regard remains relatively stable, across the transition to adulthood. Seventh graders who resided in neighborhoods in which adults were less willing to intervene or respond to problematic situations reported lower public regard in 11th grade. In addition, the trajectory of private regard varied according to the types of neighborhoods youth experienced in early adolescence.

Racial identity mediates the association between ethnic-racial socialization and depressive symptoms.

Ethnic-racial socialization has been positively linked with psychological adjustment; however, the mechanisms underlying this association remain unclear. In this study, the authors examined the mediating role of racial identity in the association between racial socialization and depressive symptoms. Participants were 211 African American young adults (62% female; mean age = 20.73, SD = 1.90) recruited from a predominately White southeastern university. Multivariate mediation analyses revealed an indirect effect of racial pride messages on depressive symptoms through private regard such that individuals who reported receiving more frequent racial pride messages were more likely to feel positively about their race, and, in turn, less likely to report depressive symptoms. Individuals who reported that their parents engaged in more socialization activities (e.g., attending cultural events) were also more likely to feel positively about their race and, in turn, report fewer depressive symptoms. These results suggest that positive feelings about one's race are important considerations in our understanding of the relation between ethnic-racial socialization and youth psychological adjustment.

Content and Attributions of Caregiver Racial Socialization as Predictors of African American Adolescents’ Private Racial Regard

The purpose of this study was to investigate the moderating effect of adolescents’ beliefs about socialization from caregivers (“attributions”) on the link between racial socialization and private regard. This research addresses the paucity of literature on adolescent attributions as a context for the relation between socialization and private regard. The independent roles of racial barrier, racial pride, and self-worth messages were examined. Adolescents’ attributions were defined as beliefs that race-based messages were coming from a parent-child relationship characterized by love, autonomy, and care. Moderation analyses on the sample of 88 African American and biracial youth (ages 11-14 years) revealed that for adolescents who placed more emphasis on a positive relationship quality as the purpose for receiving socialization, self-worth messages were associated with higher private regard. The findings support the importance of attending to adolescents’ attributions for socialization and the impact that it has on fostering positive feelings about being African American.

Daily intragroup contact in diverse settings: implications for asian adolescents' ethnic identity.

This study examined the daily-level association between contact with same-ethnic others and ethnic private regard among 132 Asian adolescents (mean age=14years) attending four high schools ranging in ethnic composition diversity. The data suggest a positive daily-level association between contact with same-ethnic others and ethnic private regard for adolescents, who were highly identified with their ethnic group and who attended predominantly White or ethnically heterogeneous schools. In addition, using time lag analyses, contact with same-ethnic others yesterday was positively related to ethnic private regard today, but ethnic private regard yesterday was unrelated to contact with same-ethnic others today, suggesting that adolescents' identity is responsive to their environments. The implications of these findings for the development of ethnic identity are discussed.

Attribution and Motivation: Gender, ethnicity, and religion differences among Indonesian university students

The study explores the possibilities of gender, ethnicity, and religion differences on attributions (locus of control, stability, personal and external control), motivational goals (learning, performance approach, performance avoidance, and work avoidance), self-efficacy, intelligence beliefs, religiosity, racial/ethnic identity, and academic performance (mid-term test, final test, and GPA scores) within the Indonesian university settings. Racial/ethnic identity had three dimensions: private regard, ethnic importance, and social embeddedness; whilst religiosity had two dimensions: religious behaviour and intrinsic religiosity. 1,006 students (73.8% Native Indonesians and 24.8% Chinese Indonesians) from three public and two private universities participated. Significant gender differences were found on work avoidance goals. Ethnic and religion differences were found on religiosity. Gender and religion interactions resulted significant differences on attribution (locus of control), religiosity (intrinsic religiosity), and academic performance (final test score).

Racial identity and reasons for living in African American female suicide attempters.

The current study investigated the association between racial identity and reasons for living in African American women who have attempted suicide. Particular attention was paid to the relation between two elements of racial identity (private regard, racial centrality) and reasons for living, an alternative assessment of suicidal risk. While private regard refers to an individual's beliefs about the African American race, racial centrality describes the importance an individual places on his or her racial identity. The sample included 82 low-income African American women, ages 18-64, who reported a suicide attempt in the past 12 months. Participants, recruited from a large, urban public hospital located in the Southeast, completed the Reasons for Living Inventory and the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity, which included the private regard and racial centrality subscales. Results indicated that, as predicted, higher private regard was associated with more reasons for living. Contrary to expectations, racial centrality was not correlated with reasons for living nor was there an interaction between private regard and racial centrality indicating that racial centrality did not function as a moderator in predicting participants' reasons for living scores. Implications for culturally competent clinical interventions that target bolstering private regard are discussed.