Postwar Expansion Research Articles

One index, two publishers and the global research economy

ABSTRACT The emergence of a global science system after the second world war was spurred by transformations in academic publishing and information science. Amidst Russian-American technological rivalries, funding for science expanded rapidly. Elsevier and Pergamon internationalised journal publishing, whilst tools such as the Science Citation Index changed the way research was measured and valued. This paper traces the connections between the post-war expansion of academic research, new commercial publishing models, the management of research information and Cold War geopolitics. Today, the analysis and use of research metadata continues to revolutionise science communication. The monetisation of citation data has led to the creation of rival publishing platforms and citation infrastructures. The value of this data is amplified by digitisation, computing power and financial investment. Corporate ownership and commercial competition reinforce geographical and resource inequalities in a global research economy, marginalising non-Anglophone knowledge ecosystems as well as long-established scholar-led serials and institutional journals. The immediate future for academic publishing will be shaped by a growing divide between commercial and ‘community-owned’ open science infrastructures.

The Skills of Citizenship

Abstract This article analyzes the history of adult vocational training (AVT) programs for Algerian migrants, funded by the French state, between the end of World War II in 1945 and the aftermath of Algerian independence in 1962. These programs responded to the postwar expansion of citizenship and rights of indigenous Algerians, including rights to migrate and to take jobs in metropolitan France. Across changing governments and diverse ministries, French officials were convinced that vocational training was necessary for indigenous Algerians to find stable employment, to mitigate the supposed risks of migration, and to enable migrants to transform themselves into an idealized version of the French citizen. The widespread adoption of AVT for Algerian migrants calls into question the pervasive image of the unskilled, interchangeable migrant. At the same time, the shortcomings of AVT programs shed light on how migrants frequently contributed to postwar economic expansion and economic modernization while enjoying the fruits of economic growth only meagerly and on an individual basis. More broadly, this study reveals the importance of skill, industry, and labor in French postwar conceptions of (social) citizenship.

The Decline of American Hegemony: Biden’s Foreign Policy Towards China

The capitalist crisis of the late 1960s not only revealed the end of the long postwar expansion but also the crisis of US hegemony, which entered into decline. Under neoliberal globalization, US foreign policy has positioned itself as a political instrument of hegemonic preservation in the face of the struggle for an ascending multipolar global order. With the arrival of Joe Biden to the presidency of the United States, this policy has represented a departure from the isolationist policy of Donald Trump, but it unfolds as a renewed version of “Cold War” politics, that is, an aggressive multilateralism and a “reloaded” imperialism, which far from advancing towards a multipolar order excludes and sanctions countries considered enemies of the United States and branded as authoritarian, non-democratic, or populist. The list is long and begins with China, which is defined as the strategic adversary of the United States in the twenty-first century.

The 60-year downward trend of economic growth in the industrialized countries of the world

This report, using data from a range of authoritative sources, studies the long-term postwar economic growth of the industrialised North and shows that this has fallen continuously, with only brief and limited interruptions, since at least the early 1960s. The trend is extremely strong and includes all major Northern economies without exception. It is confirmed by both Purchasing-Power-Parity (PPP) and a range of standard real GDP measures, by a variety of weightings of the growth rates, and a variety of aggregations of different countries. The Newly-Industrialised Countries (NICS), after early high growth rates, joined the general trend of other industrialised countrieds after the Asian Financial Crisis of 1997. It is thus an extremely well-confirmed historical trend. Recent data show no evidence of any post-COVID reversal. These results sheds new light on the current difficulties of the world economy and have many implications. They conflict with any idea that Secular Stagnation as it is increasingly referred to even in mainstream literature, originates in some recent upset such as the 2008 crash, or in the incidence of, or problems created by, a putative new régime of accumulation such as neoliberalism or financialisation. In fact, the roots of the present crisis lie in a long historical process which set in very shortly into the ‘Golden Age’ of postwar expansion.

Eavesdropping on the Emperor: Interrogators and Codebreakers in Britain's War with Japan by Peter Kornicki

Reviewed by: Eavesdropping on the Emperor: Interrogators and Codebreakers in Britain's War with Japan by Peter Kornicki Roger H. Brown (bio) Eavesdropping on the Emperor: Interrogators and Codebreakers in Britain's War with Japan . By Peter Kornicki. Oxford University Press, 2021. xxx, 402 pages. $29.95. For decades after World War II, the extent of Allied success in breaking enemy codes and the contribution it made toward the defeat of the Axis powers remained classified. The gradual lifting of the veils of secrecy finally opened the archives to scholars and permitted participants to share their experiences. Regarding the Asia-Pacific theater of the war, the lion's share of attention went to codebreaking in relation to battles such as Pearl Harbor and Midway and to strategic decisions such as those regarding war termination. More recently, historians have produced a small but solid body of scholarship examining the intensive Japanese language programs required to exploit such cryptological successes, as well as to translate documents recovered on the battlefield and interrogate prisoners. However, reflecting the dominant role of the United States in the Pacific theater, the scholarship on wartime linguists has almost totally neglected the British contribution. 1 In Eavesdropping on the Emperor, Peter Kornicki endeavors to redress this deficiency and to thereby "reveal what made the Japanese-language training programmes during the war so successful, who the remarkable teachers and their extraordinary students were, and what unseen contributions they made to the war effort in all theatres of war" (p. xxviii). Kornicki's successful effort echoes the achievements of the men and women whose stories he tells. Indeed, recovering the personal experiences of British linguists, which is at the heart of Kornicki's account, constitutes one of the great strengths of his book. The reader meets an almost endless variety of people appearing and often reappearing throughout the book, and the details regarding these individuals and their experiences in various services, programs, and theaters of action should prove valuable to a wide array of researchers. Kornicki begins by demonstrating how, even as the likelihood of war with Japan loomed, British diplomatic and military leaders responded with [End Page 267] astonishing complacency to entreaties from knowledgeable academics and military officers about the dire need for Japanese linguists. He partly attributes this lack of action to the overall underestimation of the military threat posed by Japan, a prejudice that was only shattered by the successful Japanese operations during the first six months of the war. In response to these setbacks, the few academics, missionaries, military officers, and other individuals with close knowledge of Japan and its language then established language programs at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) and the Bedford School. The instructors and students came from eclectic backgrounds ranging from professors at elite universities to working-class youths and enlisted servicemen. Together they confronted the daunting challenge of attaining a high level of proficiency in a difficult language in an extraordinarily short period of time. Success required not just personal ability but powerful motivation. Inspiration could come from many sources, but those already in service sometimes bore their own special incentives. Peter Laslett, who joined Fleet Air Arm in 1940 and was sent to learn Japanese in 1942, recalled that: "They … told us that if we couldn't read Japanese within a year we would be sent back to our ships. I had been on the Murmansk route, which was extremely dangerous, so I learned Japanese under sentence of being drowned" (p. 82). Kornicki details how these diverse students, once enrolled, engaged in truly intense study directed at mastering those aspects of the Japanese language required for their expected tasks, which included translation of decoded diplomatic messages, tactical wireless intercepts, diaries and orders found on the battlefield, and interrogation of prisoners. Graduates deployed to duty posts scattered as far as Singapore, Mauritius, India, Australia, Burma, and, eventually, occupied Japan. As was the case with their U.S. counterparts, most of these men and women returned to their civilian lives and never made use of their language skills again, but some went on to lay the foundations for the great postwar expansion of Anglophone Japanese studies. The tardiness of...

Metaphorical Machines or Mindless Consumers: Young Working-Class Femininity in Early Postwar Turkey

AbstractThe simultaneous processes of secular state-building and state-led industrialisation resulted in a new ideology of women's labor in Turkey in the 1930s and the first half of the 1940s. As the country moved away from protectionist, state-led industrialisation in the post-war period, female industrial labor received increasing and contradictory attention from policy makers, employers, the new trade union movement, and middle-class feminists. On the one hand, there emerged an idealized image of factory women that emphasized their productive potential by metaphorically linking them with technology and mass production. However, this proud, progressive message was counterbalanced by an anxious, conservative view of young women's work—one that criticized factory girls’ consumption choices as posing a threat to respectable femininity. Weaving together lines of inquiry such as the change in industrialisation policy, women's access to technology, the sexual division of labor, and the emergent consumption patterns, I unpack the tropes of working-class productivity and femininity against the backdrop of the post-war expansion of capitalism in Turkey.

The ‘two cultures’ in Australia

ABSTRACT This article considers Australian receptions of C. P. Snow’s The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution (1959), and of the controversy over the literary critic F. R. Leavis’s combative 1962 response to it. Taking a lead from conceptual insights in global histories of science and the history of knowledge, the paper considers the ways knowledge claims iterate differently in different geographic and cultural contexts. Elements of the Snow–Leavis dispute resonated among Australian scientists, cultural critics, journalists and poets, while others did not. Snow’s diagnosis of a disciplinary antagonism between the humanities and the sciences was central to Australian receptions of the controversy, but wider political issues, emphasised in much of the more sophisticated historiography of the ‘two cultures’ as a British-American controversy, were largely ignored. This reception reflected the post-war expansion of Australian higher education, and the shifting relations within it between the humanities and the sciences.

Dominique Kirchner Reill. The Fiume Crisis: Life in the Wake of the Habsburg Empire.

Dominique Kirchner Reill. <i>The Fiume Crisis: Life in the Wake of the Habsburg Empire</i>.

The Age of Discrimination: Race and American Foreign Policy after World War I

The decade after World War I has traditionally been defined as an “age of isolation.” The American public’s disillusionment with World War I, highlighted by the dismal failure of President Woodrow Wilson’s efforts to join the League of Nations, led to “A Return to Isolationism,” according to a brief summary of American diplomacy produced by the Department of State. Despite the fact that historian William Appleman Williams attempted to destroy the “legend of isolationism in the 1920s” and other scholars have followed his lead with a string of publications recounting the very active U.S. engagement with the rest of the world following the war, many textbooks continue to describe the 1920s as an age wherein the United States withdrew into a shell of isolation. My article suggests that one way of reconciling these apparently contradictory interpretations of American foreign policy in the decade after World War I is to examine one particular factor that has been largely overlooked: Whether “isolationist” or not, the United States during those years utilized race as a way to simultaneously build walls in and around the American nation as well as construct the ideological foundations for U.S. postwar expansion and engagement.

Industrial Transitions in the Black: US Government-Business Relations in the Mobilization of Carbon during World War II

This article examines government–business relations in the context of World War II mobilization of the US carbon black industry. The topic contributes to the ongoing debates about whether this relationship laid the foundation for postwar US prosperity. The primary research question is: What role did wartime mobilization and the US government play in carbon black industrial transitions and changes in technology and productivity? The evidence from wartime records of the carbon black program shows that industry dominated the government–business relations during the period. The War Production Board was unable to effectively resolve or even report on disputes between synthetic rubber and carbon black industry factions or resist carbon black industry control over product prices and specifications and approval of government-financed plant construction projects. Behind the transition was prewar and wartime carbon black industrial research and development. Through the federal government’s cooperative research, procurement, and sponsored construction contracts, the carbon black industry applied its industrial research discoveries to transform its business model to high-efficiency production in the context of postwar expansions of transportation infrastructure, economic growth, and natural gas pipelines.

As time went by - why is the long wave so long?

Since the end of the expansionary period after the Second War, the world economy went through a long period of mediocre growth with a major recession in 2009 and another in 2020. This period is examined following As Time Goes By, the last contribution by Chris Freeman, with the cooperation of this co-author. As a long period of readjustment after the beginning of a structural crisis is imposed by the mismatch between the capabilities of the emerging techno-economic paradigm and the socio-institutional framework, my argument is that the duration of this transition is explained by the difficult process of replacing a successful institutional setting, that which supported the post-War expansion, by the new accumulation regime that is being constituted. Instead of most of the literature on long waves, which tries to uncover some mechanics of succession of radical technological innovations, this paper addresses different questions: how does the socio-institutional adaptation proceed, and how relevant is this process to explain the length of the downswing since the turning point of the 1970s. In order to investigate such process of readjustment, the conditions for the new rule of financial accumulation are discussed, including the forms and duration of the process of selection, reproduction, and education of the elite, and changes in institutions, norms, and social networks.

Outside the compact city. Making borders disappear

The paper explores the challenges of demographic changes and economic growth, with reference to post-war expansions, in-between urban and rural territories.Examining EU definitions and past programmes, it analysis the concepts of periurban areas and urban fringe within two major EU funded project: Horizon 2020 “REPAiR” and URBACT III “Sub> urban. Reinventing the fringe”. These projects, going beyond past definitions, consider areas outside the compact city as an overall continuous built/un-built territory, an amorphous area between the high-density inner city and the low-density suburbs. These border areas of a city in transition, signed by urban abandonment and decay, have a strong potential for conversion and density; not in the sense of expansion related to land consumption, but working on a density of open-spaces, e.g. eco-services for new liveable habitats and sustainable way of living. The territorial regeneration process becomes progressive, adaptive and flexible, to be defined from both side of the border, through collaborative and cooperative processes, learning from the compact city.The paper uses three samples from the EU funded project -the cities of Casoria (Italy), Antwerp (Belgium) and Oslo (Norway)- which worked on their fringe, based on principles of an alternative paradigm of growth, which starts from the conversion of physical heritage (built and un-built), through densification and diversification of uses, to re-interpret the meaning and identity of long neglected areas.

Under Siege: Kentucky and the Transformation of American Thoroughbred Racing, 1865–1936

Under Siege: Kentucky and the Transformation of American Thoroughbred Racing, 1865–1936 Gary A. O’Dell (bio) Cycles in Thoroughbred Racing For many Americans, the sport of Thoroughbred racing must seem a quaint relic of a bygone era that only surfaces into public awareness once per year in May with the running of the Kentucky Derby in Louisville. Nevertheless, the breeding and racing of these horses is a multi-billion-dollar international industry. Kentucky has a long and globally recognized association with the sport that extends back to the earliest days of settlement, and which today constitutes a major segment of the regional economy. While many other locations, including Marion County, Florida; Newmarket, England; Chantilly, France; and the state of Texas, may with some justification compete for the title of “Horse Capital of the World,” there is little doubt that the Bluegrass region of Kentucky is the heart of the modern Thor-oughbred industry. This has not always been the case.1 The sport has long experienced cycles of decline and resurgence in vitality and popularity, driven by changes in the social, political, and economic fabric of the nation, and by the upheaval of war. In association with these root causes, the geographic centers for breeding [End Page 389] and racing Thoroughbred horses have periodically shifted back and forth from east to west, south to north, with Kentucky sometimes in the dominant position, and sometimes not. Thoroughbred racing was the first mass spectator sport in America, which, like baseball, was adapted from English precursors to suit American needs and tastes. First established in the colonies as an elite gentlemen’s sport, Thoroughbred racing reached the point of extinction during the Civil War. Yet, racing rebounded strongly afterward and during the remainder of the nineteenth century experienced a profound transformation in virtually all aspects of the sport. Racing became increasingly democratic and commercialized, and whereas overt gambling was once prohibited from tracks, wagering on races became the most important revenue stream and a driving force in the post-war expansion of the developing industry. As the nineteenth century ended, the sport was roiled by competing internal factions and assaulted by Progressive anti-gambling social reformers who nearly succeeded in eliminating Thoroughbred racing. Because a preoccupation with horse racing has been nearly constant in Kentucky from the pioneer era to the present day, the history of the sport within the Commonwealth provides an appropriate lens to focus upon the broader picture of national developments in Thoroughbred racing and breeding.2 American Racing Before the Civil War The first Thoroughbreds arrived in the American colonies near the middle of the eighteenth century, imported from England by wealthy southern planters who wished to emulate the aristocratic lifestyles of the mother country. Breeding and racing these horses became firmly rooted in colonial New York and in the southern states, particularly the Tidewater region of Virginia, Maryland, and South Carolina. During the Revolutionary War, destruction of infrastructure by the British invaders along with confiscation and deliberate slaughter [End Page 390] of bloodstock devastated the lowland racing establishment and promoted the westward shift of Thoroughbred racing and breeding into Kentucky and Tennessee. The central areas of these states, both known collectively as “the Bluegrass region” prior to the Civil War, were the first trans-Appalachian areas to be settled, and the hardy pioneers brought livestock with them to help tame the new land. Racing horses of ordinary breeds otherwise used for transportation and cultivation became a common form of recreation for Bluegrass residents, usually informal matches between a pair of horses down a straight path cleared for the purpose, or through the streets of a community.3 The Tidewater gentry who came to the western frontier imported Thoroughbred horses and brought order to the sport, laying out oval courses of measured length, establishing jockey clubs, and promulgating rules and regulations to govern the conduct of race meetings in the British tradition. Thoroughbred racing was essentially a gentlemen’s sport, indulged in by wealthy elites who had the means to acquire and maintain these expensive animals. The racing associations were exclusive clubs for the benefit of members who raced their horses against those of other members, with prizes...

Beyond economic policy: The post-war expansion of ice-breaking in Sweden from a small state perspective

This article examines the expansion of post-war Swedish ice-breaking and winter navigation from a small state perspective previously put forth in research on the corresponding historical developments in Finland. The results confirm the notion that the post-war expansion of winter navigation was related to the contemporary transformation within the forestry industries. Both State maritime actors and interest groups from the forestry industries framed ice-breaking as a decisive instrument to promote the exports of pulp and paper. This coincided with the introduction of cost-efficiency measures within transport policy, which allowed the State ice-breaker service to expand at the expense of the railways.

Increasing Salience of Crime Control in Finnish Parliamentary Data from the 1970s to the 2000s

In Finland, a post-war expansion of the welfare state was associated with a decline in the use of imprisonment. The 1990s marked the beginning of a more ambivalent era in Finnish criminal justice. How does this turning point appear in the public discourse on crime by political decision-makers? All parliamentary questions and members’ initiatives from 1975 to 2010 were examined with a keyword-based quantitative search, and further content analysis was conducted on data made up of 1589 written parliamentary questions about crime control from 1970 to 2010. The relative prevalence of criminal policy issues rose significantly in the early 1990s. During the same period, the political initiative moved towards the right and the views of the left seemed to move closer to the right concurrently. Although stances became tougher, expressions of leniency were in the minority before the 1990s too, which stresses the significance of the general level of political attention itself. Developments regarding specific types of crime are discussed.&#x0D; Keywords: Criminal justice, penal policy, legal history, parliamentary democracy, political parties, Finland.

Education in East Asian Societies: Postwar Expansion and the Evolution of Inequality

This article reviews research on the coevolution of educational expansion and educational inequality within China, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan in the post–World War II period. These societies are often lauded for their spectacular economic growth, widespread commitment to investing in education, and intense competition for academic success. This review first considers organizational sorting and horizontal stratification within the educational system, followed by returns to education in the labor market and then the inequality of educational opportunity, with special attention to the nominal versus positional approaches to measuring education. This combination of regional focus and substantive diversity offers the leverage of an approximately matched comparison. The findings demonstrate that there are significant heterogeneities in the coevolution of educational expansion and inequality among these societies with strong cultural and political ties. The findings also suggest complex causal and contingent relationships among educational expansion, educational stratification, returns to education, and inequality of opportunity.

Good war/bad war: a war to remember, a war to forget?

ABSTRACTThis paper uses the distinction that has been developed within organizational studies between collected memory and collective memory to explore and contrast the nature of one multinational company’s organizational memory of World War I and World War II. Although the British American Tobacco Company (BAT) experienced severe upheavals as a result of each of the two global military conflagrations of the twentieth century, this paper argues that in terms of its organizational memory there exist clear distinctions between the two. During the course of World War I, BAT was able for the first time to generate a degree of common identity which served it well in the course of its post war expansion during the 1920s. This emergence of a more unified culture, underpinned by a range of common reference points for its staff based on texts, buildings and monuments, facilitated a company-wide collective memory of the war which was subsequently used to promote an esprit de corps across the organization. During World War II, these common cultural reference points were not developed. Thus an organizational memory of World War II only emerged many decades after the event and took the form of a collected memory based on individual recollections.

From Doctrine to Safeguards in American Constitutional Democracy

Although scholars, judges, and policymakers have sometimes observed that American constitutional democracy depends on far more than the constraints imposed by formal, judicially-interpreted legal arrangements, many questions remain concerning the scope, theoretical basis, and practical implications of this insight. Drawing on judicial doctrine as well as insights from political science and the history of American institutions since the end of World War II, this Article explores what it means to take seriously a more expansive, less court-centric view of the safeguards associated with American constitutional democracy. Key aspects of American history in the twentieth century such as the postwar expansion of the consumer economy, the brutality of the Jim Crow South, and major Cold War legal disputes underscore why safeguards are best understood to encompass society’s capacity to improve institutions over time, rather than simply the protection of certain static political, economic, or legal arrangements. I offer a relatively explicit account of the mechanisms that underlie norms supporting constitutional democracy. I also explore reasons why difficulties may grow in the future, particularly in light of changing social conditions, technology, and geopolitics. While acknowledging the importance of constitutional doctrine — often most clearly articulated in the United States by courts — this Article explains why the concept of constitutional safeguards makes little sense descriptively or prescriptively without understanding a larger context focused on specific norms and institutional capacity. Attending to that larger context better reveals the mechanisms through which doctrine articulated in court decisions informs public action, and particularly how legal interpretations facilitate coordination around ideals that limit abuses of official power and strengthen the constitutional system’s capacity to address institutional shortcomings and societal tensions. While these nuances of constitutional safeguards bring into focus some of the sources of resilience for institutions, they also highlight a variety of questions and trade-offs that I begin to address here. These include the extent to which courts elaborating constitutional doctrine can reasonably be expected to take account of concerns about norms and institutional capacity, the role of private sector organizations whose capacity to shape public attitudes and communications is substantial enough to affect mass public deliberation, the importance of social insurance in addressing economic uncertainty that can undermine social cohesion and the public’s stake in constitutional systems, and the alternatives available to societies coping with ruptures in those norms necessary to support democracy and constitutional governance. Perhaps most important, candor in the discussion of constitutional safeguards will tend to encourage reflection about how laws are implemented in practice and what it takes for safeguards to function as tools for enhancing constitutional democracy in a changing world that may become increasingly skeptical of this form of government.

The Long-Waves and the Evolution of Futures Practice and Theory

Futures studies explore potential consequences of present day actions, and help in formulating desirable visions of the future, to guide action in the present. Although these aims have remained roughly the same, the practices and implicit theories supporting them have varied through time. This article looks at the evolution of futures through the framework of the long-wave theory, discussing the results of thematic interviews of futures professionals in three geographic areas: Finland, South Korea, and California. The long-wave theory sees societies changing in forty to sixty year cycles driven by technological development, around which social practices evolve. There have been five socio-technical waves since 1780s. Each wave brought about a set of policies and social models, and a shared mind-set. In the fourth wave, futures was mostly practiced with the spirit of the postwar economic expansion, techno-optimism, and linear worldview, with futures methods that reflected trust in scientific authority, and aimed at forecasting the most probable outcomes for the future. The fifth wave was defined by uncertainty, which was managed by using strategy tools like scenarios that prepared for various different short- and mid-term outcomes. For the sixth wave, futures practitioners are divided between the expertled quasi-predictive model that dominates especially in the technology forecasting work, and the systemic perspective, which questions the centrally organized process-view to futures. New methods, often developed outside the field, have in many ways inspired and shaped the intellectual space in which the evolution of both practices and theory may occur in the future.

Educational research: Which way now?

The British Educational Research Association (BERA) was established 44 years ago, in 1974, at the height of the postwar expansion of education, and at the onset of a long period of controversy and reform of education that has continued ever since. The presidential address for 2017 looks back to reflect on the birth and early years of BERA, on its founding principles and the circumstances in which it grew. It does so to identify the ideals that motivated and helped to shape the nascent organisation, and to ask how relevant and useful these are at a very different time, charting our future in the twenty‐first century. More broadly, this address moves beyond an institutional history and a history of ideas, to contribute to a social history of educational research based on a wide range of documentary and archival evidence. In considering our past, we must attempt to resist an uncritical and functional approach in favour of a critical and reflective outlook that is alert to unresolved issues and problems, no less than it is to success and progress in our collective endeavours. This is necessary partly in order to reconstruct our historical experience in a robust manner, but also to address our present situation in an effective way. In 1977, the historian Brian Simon framed his presidential address to BERA around the key question ‘Educational research: which way?’ Forty years on, we can appraise how BERA has approached this question, and also ask at the same time: which way now?