Positive Science Research Articles

Evaluating of Māturīdī’s Opinions About Existence of Angels

Existences in Kalām’s literature are divided into two; the Eternal without beginning of existence and subsequently occurring the existent in time. The Eternal is Allah himself, who does not have the characteristics of creation, being later, or being born. The existent in time is everything except Allah. The existent in time existences are examined in two parts as latīf (transparent) and kasīf (solid). The kasīf existences that make up the universe we live in are divided into two clusters: live and lifeless; lifelesses are also divided into two subsets in the form of liquid-solid. It is out of the question to discuss their existence because the physical senses can just perceive these. Latīf existences that make up the invisible universe are divided as ulwī (lofty) and suflī (servile). Angels are under the ulvī division. There are disputes about existence of angels because angels don’t appear as kāsīf existences. Angels are beings of the invisible universe; they cannot be perceived by our senses. Therefore, positive sciences, which come to a conclusion with experiment and experience, are not concerned with the existence and absence of angels. We reach information about them from the Qur’ān and the hadiths. To believe in the existence of angels in the Qur’ān is considered among the principles of faith. In addition, without being under any influence, sound mind judges the existence of angels. Believing in the existence of Angels is fixed by texts, but while some alims are trying to prove their existence with rational proofs, some think that the text evidence proves their existence. In this rescript, Abū Mansūr al-Māturīdī’s (d. 333/944) books named Kitāb al-Tawhīd’s and Ta’wīlāt al-Qur’ān were taken into the center, and his view on the existence of angels was discussed. Our study aims to determine where Māturīdī places the angels in the hierarchy of existence, how he describes their existence, what views he has about their nature, and with what evidence he proves their existence. Māturīdī argues that there are many jawhars that we cannot see like angels, but whose existence we believe, and he states that Allah has not given humans the power to see the things of the invisible universe in the life of this world. He points out that the failure to see angels is not enough to judge their absence, and he reveals his opinion with rational inference. While proving the existence of angels, it also clarifies the subject by giving examples from the versicles. How Māturīdī proved the existence of angels is the main subject of this study.

Is Science for Everyone? Exploring Intersectional Inequalities in Connecting With Science

Several studies have investigated the way learners connect with science, re-emphasising persisting inequalities in science learning. This article combines the concept of intersectionality with the theoretical lens of science learning ecologies to focus on inequalities in connecting with science: Which factors influence the formation of a positive science attitude of young learners and how does the social background of young learners influence their opportunities of connecting with science, focusing on the intersections of class and gender? Based on a quantitative survey among 1,486 visitors of non-formal science education offers aged between 8 and 21, we analyze important factors for the development of a positive science attitude and investigate structural inequalities. The intersectional perspective was implemented in the sampling, survey design as well as its analysis. Using composite indicators of age and gender as well as gender and educational capital, we avoid a homogenisation of broadly defined groups. The results highlight that the development of a highly positive science attitude–as identified in a stepwise logistic regression model–is linked to supportive social environments, intrinsic motivation, science learning in school as well as regular engagement in arts-based learning, and self-directed science learning. The learning ecology perspective illustrates the influence of school on science attitudes in general. From an intersectional perspective, however, our findings demonstrate that the persistence of an androcentric and classist concept of science is not compatible with every learning ecology; male learners from educationally affluent backgrounds are most likely to enjoy science learning and see how science relates to their everyday realities. In turn, however, not only female learners with lower educational capital but also male learners with lower educational capital might find it more difficult to connect with science. The intersectional approach unveiled the multiple ways educational capital and gender shape individual learning ecologies. More equitable science learning spaces and offers have to adapt to a diversity of needs and preferences in order to make science activities enjoyable for all.

Analisis Emosi Akademik Sains dalam Pembelajaran Fisika dan Dampaknya terhadap Prestasi Mahasiswa

This study aims to analyze the science academic emotions of undergraduate students on physics learning especially e-learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. This research is a descriptive study using a qualitative approach. The subjects in the study were 119 students in the second semester. Then, this study uses several instruments, namely questionnaires, tests, and portfolio sheets. The results of the analysis show several important findings, namely 1) undergraduate students have good enough academic emotions, 2) positive science academic emotions have an impact on student academic achievement, and 3) 80.25% of students enjoy online physics learning and tend to have better levels of self-confidence

Theology and psychological concepts of religiosity. The possibilities for interdisciplinary cooperation

The article attempts to outline the possibilities of cooperation between theology and the psychology of religion. The author, using historical and comparative methods, analyzes various models of relations between contemporary theology and the psychology of religion. First, he shows the stages of the development of the Catholic Church's reference to specific sciences from the First Vatican Council to the present day, from recognizing the absence of contradiction between faith and science, through the recognition of the autonomy of theology among the positivistic sciences, to the stage of building cooperation in the post-conciliar period. It then suggests ways of presenting religious issues in various different types of psychology of religion (models of conflict, subordination, parallelism, and integration). The paper also undertaken an explanation of differences between methodological and ontological reductionism in psychologists' understanding of the Absolute as an object of religious relation. It cites D. M. Wulff’s two-dimensional summary scheme as an example of the extraordinary complexity of the problem psychology has in understanding religion. The author further analyzes the attempts at one-dimensional integration of theology and the psychology of religion (understood as two opposite poles of one continuum, where pastoral praxis is a search for the golden mean). Recognizing the inadequacy of these attempts, the author advocates a pluralistic translation of religious phenomena, i.e. interpreting the phenomenon under study based on both psychology and theology. Distinguishing between the empirical order and the revealed (the natural distinguished from the supernatural) in the dialogue between psychology and theology, he proposes to adopt the relationship of convergence rather than that of complementarity. The summary of the previous analyses is the two-dimensional model of cooperation between theology and the psychology of religion as outlined by the author.

SMISAO ANGAŽMANA U SARTROVOM EGZISTENCIJALIZMU

This paper attempts to present the notion of as an indispensable moment of Sartre's understanding of existence. Sartre does not take man as a given among other facts, as a mere biological being or an object among other objects that will explain the positive sciences. He understands man, the footsteps of Kierkegaard and Heidegger, as a self-conscious, free existence (lat. Existentia). On the original meaning of the term existentia and Sartre's use of that term, which is closest to the original spirit of the meaning, one can see the distinction that distances him most from other philosophers of existence, and most from religious ones. Existence is not just my (personal) thing, something that concerns only me and my closed subjectivity/interior, nor is it a matter of my (personal) relationship with God or the question of discovering the meaning of Being. Existence is always coexistence, being-in-the-world, always a situation. If I am always in a situation, more precisely if I am a situation, I exist only as engaged. Sartre's use of the word engagement opens up two dimensions of the term that correspond to his developmental path philosophy. Addressing Marx as much as Kierkegaard, Sartre accepts the socio-collective dimension of existence. Such existence is not (only) engaged the exclusive search for personal (own) meaning, but is always directed to Others. Others may be the limit and obstacle of my search for authentic meaning, but they are also a condition of my search, of my commitment. That is why being thrown into the world, among others, does not only mean being conflict with and against others but also means the possibility of cooperation and a common search for collective meaning. The two modes of that are operational the early and late phases of Sartre's philosophy, although different their meaning – one is focused on the individual-personal meaning, while the other is a matter of socio-collective practice – do not have to be opposed. I am a unique and concrete existence, but I am also a coexistence among Others, in-a-situation, in-a-world, in-a-society, in-a-collective. That being said – my personal meaning may be contrary to the meaning of community, but the fact remains that it can only be developed that community!

Ahmed Rûmî Akhisârî’nin Bilinmeyen Eseri İʿtiḳâd Risâlesi ve Aklî-Naklî İlimlerin Öğrenilmesinin Ehemmiyeti Sorunsalıyla İlgili Görüşlerinden Hareketle Mezhebî Aidiyetine Dair Bazı Analizler -Transkripsiyon ve Değerlendirme

This study aims to transcribe and evaluate a book entitled I’tikād Risālesi, which remained unknown until recently and is penned by Ahmad Rūmī Akhisārī (d. 1041/1631-32). The author is one of the leaders of Qādī-zādelis Movement that emerged for some religious and political reasons during the Ottoman Empire in the 17th century. I’tikād Risālesi, is composed of a few pages that highlight Akhisārī’s opinions regarding the importance of learning and teaching positive sciences (‘ulūm al-‘akliyye) and transferred sciences (‘ulūm al-nakliyye). Akhisārī penned the book to express own opinions about education of positive and transferred sciences and to fill the research gap in this field. Moreover, the our study intends to reveal and evaluate Akhisārī’s opinions related to such forms of sciences with reference to this book. İn addition, the study aims to determine his attitude about the science of Kalam by applying the his concepts to other books of the same author. Thus, the study evaluates and analyzes denominational belonging of the author. Vievs about sciences of Akhisārī who one of the leaders of aforesaid movement which is both accused by Salafism and asserted its showing up based on Birgivī (d. 981/1573) only is having feature that shake to these claims. Therefore, the study both fills these research gaps about these claims and makes aforesaid book which is never known until recently available to researchers who is researcing in this branch.

Den praktiska teologin som professionsteori

The purpose of this article is to remind Practical Theology in Sweden of its historically given identity and to show that this identity derives from a well-defined encyclopedic context. The point of departure is that theology is a positive science, in the sense used by Friedrich Schleiermacher: a science directed towards a specific goal, which in theology's case is the well-informed government of the Church. Within theology thus understood, Practical Theology provides professional training by developing pastoral theory. It forms a bridge between on the one hand philosophical and historical theology, and on the other the praxis that theology ultimately serves. Based on this understanding, the article treats four areas of responsibility of Practical Theology: students, churches, research, and theological faculties. Its task in relation to students is to teach them to combine various kinds of theological knowledge in theoretical reflection on ecclesial practices. Its task in relation to churches is to provide them with well-educated leaders and useful research. Its task in research is to further the well-being of churches without compromizing scholarly standards or curtailing academic freedom. Its task in relation to theological faculties, finally, is to contribute to cooperation between subjects by upholding the integrative character of Practical Theology. Methodologically, the article makes use of German Evangelical theology in order to refer Swedish Practical Theology back to its origin and counteract influences that have confused its identity, namely a positivist conception of theology as the scientific study of Christianity, prevalent in Sweden since the early 1970s, and, more recently, the appropriation of the name "Practical Theology" by theologians engaged in critical studies, practice theory, and social activism.

Exploring Hip-Hop Pedagogy for the Advancement of Girls of Color in Science

Female and male students perform equally well on science standardized tests, yet there are disparities in gender in most science-related fields. There are far fewer women from underrepresented backgrounds represented in science-related fields, as they are less likely to enroll in advanced science courses because of a perceived lack of positive science identity. Using a framework of cultural community capital, this study suggests that girls of color are able to develop a science identity and a deeper understanding of science content as a result of the implementation of a hip-hop pedagogy in an urban science classroom.

Contemporary Grammars of Meaning Creation: Scientific Creationism and New Atheism

This article approaches the grammars of meaning creation by Scientific Creationism and New Atheism from an anthropological-communicological perspective. By grammars of meaning creation, we understand the different languages that the human being uses to communicate the meaning of their existence to themself and others. Nowadays, Scientific Creationism is disseminated around the world and has transcended evangelical Christianity by permeating non-Christian religions. On the other hand, New Atheism, headed by Richard Dawkins, has also reached non-Western cultures such as Muslim cultures. Starting from Apelian transcendental semiotics, the hermeneutics of Durand’s symbol, and Lluís Duch’s anthropological study on mythos and logos, we reflect on the horizons of understanding of both movements. Our study shows that, contrary to what one might think given the antagonistic metaphysical positions the two movements seem to profess, Scientific Creationists and New Atheists share the same grammar of meaning creation: positivism. What one could interpret as a new epistemological controversy between science and religion can be better understood as a fight based on positivist science to establish the true origin myth. Thus, creationists and atheists implicitly recognize positivism as the contemporary theological discourse, i.e., the self-evident grammar of meaning creation that allows the Truth to be expressed.

Внутренняя форма между логикой и семантикой: В. фон Гумбольдт – Г. Шпет – Р. Якобсон – Н. Жинкин. Жинкин Н.И. Письмо П.С. Попову. Публикация Б.И. Пружинина и Т.Г. Щедриной

The reason for writing this article was a letter from Nikolai Ivanovich Zhinkin to Pavel Sergeevich Popov (has been reproduced hereafter), which discusses the es­sential logical-epistemological problem of the relationship between conscious­ness and language. The authors immerse the ideas expressed by N.I. Zhinkin in the late – psychological – period of creativity, in the field of his early – philo­sophical – interests, motivated by the conceptual constructions of his teacher G.G. Shpet (first of all, by his phenomenologically oriented studies of the inner form of the word). The concept of inner form, the European sources of its origin, the trajectory of its historical movement in Russia from philosophy (G.G. Shpet) to linguistics (R.O. Yakobson) and psychology (N.I. Zhinkin) is central for the authors of the article, as well as the semantic transformations that occur with him during the transfer from the sphere of philosophy to specific scientific areas of knowledge. At the same time, the historical continuity of Russian pre-revolution­ary philosophy and scientific and humanitarian thought of the Soviet period is demonstrated. In methodological terms, the authors focus on the features of philosophical ideas’ application in their projection onto the emerging positive scientific research itself. When a positive (albeit humanitarian) science assimi­lates any approach initiated by philosophy, it accentuates aspects of its concep­tual content relevant to a given subject area under study, thereby determining its ideological and conceptual potential. Such a semantic limitation of philosophical ideas and concepts, arising in the course of their projection onto positive scien­tific research, stops their dynamics, which is inevitable retribution for their spe­cific cognitive effectiveness.

Проблема співвідношення полів культурної та візуальної антропології в логіці кризи текстоцентричних методів дослідження культури

The article is devoted to the study of the relevance of anthropological issues in the beginning of twentieth century and socio-cultural background of the anthropological sciences. The specificity of the subject and method of anthropology as a science in general focused on the systematization of empirical material which was studied. In this context, the logic of the formation of cultural / social anthropology and its instrumental interest to the video productions of technical media is studied. Anthropology tried to form a scientific understanding of human world as a holistic phenomenon (combining theoretical generalizations based on empirical data), while cultural anthropology focused on the study of cultural diversity. Visual anthropology emerged as a crossing of the fields of cultural anthropology as an academic discipline and the field of application of technical optical media, and thus a new source of empirical material. The gradual accumulation of empirical material in the "field researches" of anthropologists allowed to significantly expand the subject area and optics of anthropological science. And also it allowed visual anthropology to go gradually beyond the instrumental function that was originally intended for it. Meanwhile, the text-centered view of ethnographic material led to the transform of the culture of indigenous peoples into the codes of Western civilization, and hence to its reduction. Any of the various authentic non-Western cultures fundamentally distinguishes them from the unification style of the modern culture. The accumulation of video production by ethnography has allowed not only to preserve the disappearing authentic cultures, but also to develop methods of systematization of visual material, as well as to understand the role of visual anthropology as an autonomous discipline of the humanities. The integration of two aspects of visual anthropology (the production and study of images) casts doubt the classical style of positivist science: in particular, on the one hand the status of the subject as an observer or a spectator, on the one hand, and the monopoly of text optics, on the other.

Microbes

Microbes are an essential component of our ecosystem which have coexisted with humans and all other life forms for millions of years. These microbes have proven beneficial in our everyday life in many ways, but the recognized pathogenic forms have also proven to be dangerous to human life. The recent pandemic caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 is evidence for the significant impact of negative human interference with the natural ecosystem which might include but is not limited to rapid urbanization, pollution, agricultural change, food consumption, and global warming. In this context, the principle of “eugenics” proposed by Sir Galton has been discussed in the current perspective. The aim of this review is to discuss the application of ethical scientific practices to promote healthy human evolution without disturbing the ecological balance. We reviewed literature relevant to the impact of microbial systems on public health including the recent COVID-19 pandemic. We suggest that the concept of “modern eugenics” should be reconsidered in ethical scientific terms by focusing on the beneficial gene(s) and eliminating harmful gene(s) of pathogenic organisms. This might contribute to the human genetic enhancement and facilitate a safe symbiotic ecosystem. In the past, scientists have successfully developed simple and safe bioassays for the identification of mutagens and carcinogens using pathogenic microorganisms. Similarly, recently developed gene therapies using viral vectors are excellent examples of the ethical and scientific application of modern eugenics for healthy human evolution. Therefore, it is necessary to establish an “International Society for Positive Science” comprising of individuals from all fields to critically analyze the positive and ethical use of science to promote and strengthen the cohabitation of all species and prevent the recurrence of future pandemics.

ACCOUNTING ANALYSIS ON EURASIAN COUNTRIES BY APPLYING THE EDGEWORTH’S BOX

Accounting systems record transactions of goods, services, and products exchanged between units of activities in an economy. The exchanges made are also exchanges of valuations between the accounts as parts and counterparts of their accounting record. The national accounts systems report the activity carried out by a nation in a period, and the financial statements are a synthesis of the decision-making adopted. The paper analyzes the Eurasian economies by showing their accounting equilibria in an Edgeworth box. The measurement of their positions explains the level of risk adopted in a period, which can be transmitted visually to those who participate in the development of a common project. The analysis justifies that the financing of an economy must maintain a productive capacity to obtain a monetary saving greater than the economic result of the period. This criterion indicates whether the activity carried out is a position of growth, risk, or migration. According to the explanatory level of the economic and financial behavior of analyzed economies, the Edgeworth box has become the laboratory of the research developed in the paper, and accounting is considered a positive science of the social sciences.

DIALOGIC PHENOMENOLOGY OF PAIN EXPERIENCE SAULIUS GENIUSAS THE PHENOMENOLOGY OF PAIN. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 2020 ISBN 978-0-8214-2403-2

The review focuses on Saulius Geniusas’ book, The Phenomenology of Pain. In this study, Geniusas develops his own systematic phenomenology of the experience of pain, based primarily on the conceptual resources of Edmund Husserl’s phenomenology. In doing so, the philosopher formulates and successfully implements original methodological principles of “dialogical phenomenology.” Such a phenomenology consists of, on the one hand, strict phenomenological analysis of pain based on the methods of epoché, phenomenological reduction and eidetic variation, and on the other hand, of actual and partly polemical inclusion of phenomenological point of view in the ongoing discussion of pain in the social and biological sciences. The author manages to do this by supplementing his eidetic analysis of the essence of pain experience with the method of “factual variations” and by appealing to the analytical optics of Husserl’s late genetic phenomenology. This way the book reflects—on strictly phenomenological grounds—numerous findings from the sociology and biology of pain. The book relies on the tradition of phenomenological research, offers a conceptual reconstruction of the key dispute about pain that took place in this tradition (between Franz Brentano and Carl Stump) and, in its turn, grounds the positive sciences of pain in the direct evidence of experience itself.

Beyond the Empirical Turn: Elements for an Ontology of Engineering

This paper aims to sketch a critical historicisation of the empirical turn in the philosophy of technology. After presenting Achterhuis’s definition of the empirical turn, I show how its final outcome is an ontophobic turn, i.e. a rejection of Heidegger’s legacy. Such a rejection culminates in the Mr Wolfe Syndrome, the metamorphosis of the philosophy of technology into a positive science which, in turn, depends on an engineerisation/problematisation of reality, i.e. the eclipse of the difference between ‘problem’ and ‘question’. My objection is that if Technology as such becomes nothing, then the paradoxical accomplishment of the empirical turn is the self-suppression of the philosophy of technology. As a countermovement, I propose an ontophilic turn, i.e. the establishment of a philosophy of technology in the nominative case whose first step consists in a Heidegger renaissance.

Considerações sobre a Relação entre Filosofia e Ciência em Alexandre Koyré a partir de uma Questão

A partir de uma questão apresentada na “Introdução” deste artigo, procuraremos elucidar a relação entre os pensamentos filosófico e científico conforme escritos de Alexandre Koyré. Dividimos nosso texto em quatro partes, que abordam: (1) a disputa de Koyré contra a filosofia da ciência positivista e a epistemologia de Émile Meyerson, estas duas defendendo a existência de verdades imutáveis; (2) a oposição de Koyré à s epistemologias continuistas, apresentando o citado pensador como um descontinuista dado seu diagnóstico da historicidade da razão; (3) a tese koyreana que busca explicar a gênese do matematismo da física clássica como uma ilustração do primado teórico da ciência e da sua descontinuidade; (4) a resposta à questão inicial do nosso artigo, a partir da ideia da inseparabilidade entre filosofia e ciência e da ideia de descontinuidade da razão.

POSTANARCHISM AS A PHILOSOPHY OF RADICAL POLITICS

The article presents the postanarchist conceptualization of radical politics. The methodology of this study was a critical analysis and use of historical and philosophical methods, the method of contextualism, the method of discursive analysis. In connection with the intensification of protest movements, including those aimed at combating the omnipotence of the state, the spread of the ideology of anti-globalization is growing theoretical interest in anarchism. Anarchism today is not the only political doctrine. This is a large family of like-minded people, united by hostility to uncontrolled power, distrust of the hierarchy and optimistic belief in the ability of ordinary people to control their lives and organize social relations on the basis of freedom, equality and solidarity. In the framework of the announced “anarchist turn”, anarchism is manifested as the basis of radical policy in recent times. The theoretical foundations of modern anarchism remain poorly understood. Modern political radicalism is based on a certain philosophy, which in a new way substantiates the ideas and actions in the socio-political sphere, aimed at radical change of existing social institutions. This is a philosophy of action, struggle, protest. Postanarchism is seen as a new view of radical politics. The features of philosophical essentialism as the basis of conceptual modeling in classical anarchism are formulated. Postanarchism is presented as a philosophy that avoids essentialism, its tools are analyzed. The connection between the left movement of the 1960s and modern post-capitalist movements is analyzed. Political theory here is further developed, ceases to be abstract, filled with human meaning. Within the framework of the “anarchist turn” there is a gradual destruction of the main stereotypes or narratives about anarchism (about its theoretical insolvency, unscientificity, utopianism) formed over many years in literature and public opinion. It is proved that the theory of anarchism is constantly evolving and updated over time in order to find solutions to acute social, political and economic problems. The author sees the prospects of post-anarchism in its political philosophy, which has certain values. In the modern era, such a philosophy was supplanted by positivist political science in theory and for the triumph of moral nihilism and relativism in practice. The obtained results allow us to find out what distinguishes modern anarchism as a movement and philosophy from the left movements of the past and the features of the theoretical language of description of the modern protest movement.

Value-free paradise is lost. Economists could learn from artists

Despite the conclusions from the contemporary philosophy of science, many economists cherish the ideal of positive science. Therefore, value-free economics is still the central paradigm in economics. The first aim of the paper is to investigate economics’ axiomatic assumptions from an epistemological perspective. The critical analysis of the literature shows that the positive-normative dichotomy is exaggerated. Moreover, value-free economics is based on normative foundations that have a negative impact on individuals and society. The paper’s second aim is to show that economics’ normativity is not a problem because the discussion concerning values is possible and unavoidable. In this context, Weber and other methodologists are investigated. The conclusion of the paper is that science can thrive without strict methodological rules thanks to institutional mechanisms. Therefore, economists could learn from artists who accept the world without absolute rules. This perspective opens the possibility for methodological pluralism and normative approaches.

BATILILAŞMA SÜRECİ İÇERİSİNDE ÇOCUĞUN KONUMLANDIRILMASI: EĞİTİM, OYUN VE ÇOCUK HUKUKU BAĞLAMINDA ÜÇ KİTAP, ÜÇ İNCELEME

Avrupa’da Sanayi Devrimi ile başlayan gelişmeler, yeni icat ve keşifleri de beraberinde getirmiş; eğitim, hukuk ve pozitif bilimlerde ilerleme kaydedilmiştir. Sanayi devrimi, üretimde eğitimli iş gücünü ihtiyaç haline getirmiştir. Bu da insanın üretimdeki payını daha önemli bir yere taşımıştır. Bu fikir Osmanlı’da Tanzimat Fermanı ile yaygınlaşmaya başlamış; eğitim ve hukuk gibi alanlarda Batı’daki gelişmeler dikkate alınmış ve uygulanmaya çalışılmıştır. Bu çalışmanın amacı çocukların eğitimi ve hukuki durumu üzerine yazılmış Osmanlıca kitapların incelenmesi ve Batılılaşma sürecinde çocuğun toplum içerisinde yeniden konumlandırılması bağlamında irdelenmesidir. Nitel bir yaklaşımla yapılandırılmış olan bu çalışmada nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden doküman inceleme yöntemi kullanılmış; elde edilen veri içerik analizi yöntemi ile çözümlenmiştir. Bulgular eğitim, oyun ve çocuk hukuku olmak üzere üç kategori altında irdelenmiştir. İncelenen kitaplarda pozitif bilimlerin önemi, aklın üstünlüğü, bilgiyi sorgulama ve somutlaştırma, oyunun önemi, oyun temelli eğitim yaklaşımının benimsenmesi ve çocuğun hukuki haklarının yeniden düzenlenmesi ile ilgili bilgilerin yer aldığı görülmüş; bu bilgiler ışığında çocuğun toplum içerisinde yeniden konumlandırılması ile ilgili tartışmaya yer verilmiştir. Cumhuriyet döneminde yapılan yeniliklerin temeli Cumhuriyet öncesi yıllara dayanmaktadır. Bu dönemi anlatan eserlerin gün yüzüne çıkartılması ve Türkçe’ye kazandırılması, o döneme tanıklık edebilmemiz açısından önemlidir. Dolayısıyla bu anlamda yapılacak çalışmaların artırılması ve alan yazına kazandırılması önerilmektedir.

DECONSTRUCTION AND TURGENEV'S FATHERS AND SONS

World literature underwent a drastic turn with the emergence of the philosophy of Jacques Derrida, particularly with the emergence of the concept of deconstruction. Although Derrida used the concept of deconstruction in terms of philosophical ideas, the emergence of this concept paved the way for different interpretations of literary texts. Deconstructing a text means using the text’s own structure to subvert the meaning the text tries to convey. It might be said that the concept of deconstruction as it is employed in literature seeks the ways to lay bare the mechanisms behind the constructions of a text. Turgenev’s Fathers and Sons (1859) – the novel depicting the struggle between the cultural heritage and the innovative age – presents Bazarov as the representative of the latter; Bazarov stands for stability and certainty that were brought to human beings’ existence by the advance of positive sciences. A deconstructive approach to the novel shows that even though the protagonist tries to apply his belief in reason in his life, he fails because the centre on which he relies does not exist as a transcendental signified. Derridean approach to this text unveils the fact that although people of the 19th century celebrated the advance of science and saw it as their new stability, they were mistaken because clinging to one centre is against human nature. They wanted to feel that they were surrounded by the boundaries of the centre but the outside of this centre made itself heard in the instincts of human beings.