Poison Sumac Research Articles

Herbarium specimens reveal century-long trait shifts in poison ivy due to anthropogenic CO2 emissions.

Previous experimental studies have shown that poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans; Anacardicaceae) responds to elevated CO2 with increased leaf production, water-use efficiency, and toxicity (allergenic urushiol). However, long-term field data suggest no increase in poison ivy abundance over time. Using herbarium specimens, we examined whether poison ivy and other species shifted leaf traits under natural conditions with increasing atmospheric CO2 (pCO2 ) over the past century. We measured stomatal density, leaf area, leaf N, leaf C:N, leaf carbon isotope discrimination (Δleaf ), and intrinsic water-use efficiency (iWUE) from 327 specimens collected from 1838 to 2020 across Pennsylvania. We compared poison ivy's responses to two evolutionarily related tree species, Toxicodendron vernix and Rhus typhina (Anacardiacae) and one ecological analog, Parthenocissus quinquefolia (Vitaceae), a common co-occurring liana. Stomatal density significantly decreased (P < 0.05) in poison ivy and the ecologically similar liana P. quinquefolia over the past century, but did not change in the related trees T. vernix and R. typhina. None of these species showed significant trends in changes in leaf N or C:N. Surprisingly, in poison ivy, but not the other species, Δleaf increased with increased pCO2 , corresponding to significant declines in iWUE over time. In contrast to the results of short-term experimental studies, iWUE decreased in poison ivy over the last century. Trait responses to pCO2 varied by species. Herbarium specimens suggest that realized long-term plant physiological responses to increased CO2 may not be reflected in short-term experimental growth studies, highlighting the value of collections.

Botanical Briefs: Toxicodendron Dermatitis.

Toxicodendron dermatitis is a type IV hypersensitivity reaction resulting from exposure to urushiol found in poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac. The dermatitis presents as a pruritic erythematous rash with vesicles and bullae in areas that were in contact with the plant. Symptoms present after 24 to 48 hours and can be managed with a variety of treatments, depending on severity. Avoidance is the principal way to prevent Toxicodendron dermatitis, highlighting the importance of educating patients on identification of plants.

Itchy Toxicodendron Plant Dermatitis

Plants such as the Toxicodendron species, consisting of poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac, largely contribute to allergic contact dermatitis with itch as a predominate symptom. Many individuals are affected by this skin condition, with approximately 50% to 70% of adults in North America demonstrating a degree of clinical sensitivity to this species of plants. In this review, we discuss the prevalence, pathophysiology, and clinical features of this contact dermatitis, as well as both treatment and prevention directed towards alleviation of itch. Updated research is emphasized throughout this review, although it is evident that this field is evolving, and more research is necessary to enhance treatment.

Plant Dermatitis: More Than Just Poison Ivy.

Plants can cause allergic contact dermatitis (ACD), mechanical irritant contact dermatitis, chemical irritant contact dermatitis, light-mediated dermatitis, and pseudophytodermatitis. Allergic contact dermatitis to chemicals in the Toxicodendron genus, which includes poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac, is the most common cause of plant ACD; however, many other plants, such as Compositae, Alstroemeriaceae, and Rutaceae plants also are important causes of dermatitis. In individuals with recurrent ACD from plants other than Toxicodendron, patch testing can be used to identify the source of allergic reactions to plant species. This article provides an overview of the various plant dermatoses, common culprits of plant dermatitis, and diagnostic and therapeutic options for plant dermatoses.

Biology and Management of Poison Ivy (Toxicodendron radicans) in the Home Landscape

Poison ivy is an allergenic plant of the cashew family native to North America. Poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac all grow in Florida and contain the oily resin called urushiol. This new 4-page publication of the UF/IFAS Environmental Horticulture Department was written to aid landowners, gardeners, horticulturalists, and pest management professionals in identification and management of poison ivy in residential and commercial landscapes. Written by Yuvraj Khamare and Chris Marble.

Allergic contact dermatitis

Allergic contact dermatitis is a delayed hypersensitivity reaction resulting from exposure to a foreign substance that acts as an allergen. The most common causes of allergic contact dermatitis are poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac, as well as nickel used in jewelry, clothing, and electronics. Latex allergy is common in health care workers and other frequent wearers of latex gloves.

Phytodermatitis: A Brief Review of Human Skin Reactions Caused by the Kingdom Plantae

Many organisms of the kingdom Plantae may cause skin reactions when contacted or ingested. Those involved in work and recreation in the great outdoors as well as gardeners and other plant enthusiasts are well aware of this. While Toxicodendron dermatitis from poison ivy, oak, and sumac is the most common cause of allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) in the United States, this is just the tip of the iceberg. Numerous other species of plants are also known causes of ACD, producing a multitude of molecular culprits.

Poison Ivy, Oak, and Sumac Dermatitis: What Is Known and What Is New?

Poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac are the most common causes of clinically diagnosed allergic contact dermatitis in North America. Approximately 50% to 75% of the US adult population is clinically sensitive to poison ivy, oak, and sumac. We reviewed the botany and history of these plants; urushiol chemistry and pathophysiology, clinical features, and the prevalence of allergic contact dermatitis caused by these plants; and current postexposure treatment and preventive methods, including ongoing investigations in the development of a vaccine (immunotherapy). Although extensive efforts have been made to develop therapies that prevent and treat contact dermatitis to these plants, there lacks an entirely effective method, besides complete avoidance. There is a need for a better therapy to definitively prevent allergic contact dermatitis to these plants.

Urushiol Patch Test Using the T.R.U.E. TEST System.

Poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac are the most common causes of allergic contact dermatitis in North America. Although extensive efforts have been made to develop therapies that prevent and treat allergic contact dermatitis to these plants, there lacks an entirely effective method, besides complete avoidance. Efforts to develop a more effective preventive therapy, such as a vaccine, are ongoing. To accurately evaluate the efficacy of these new therapies, an appropriate assessment tool is needed. The aim of this study was to evaluate the safety and appropriate doses of urushiol required for a patch test based on the hydrogel delivery system of the Thin-Layer Rapid Use Epicutaneous Patch Test. Nine subjects were patch tested with various doses of urushiol and a negative control on day 0. Patch test sites were inspected for any local reaction on days 2, 4, 7, 14, and 21 after the initial exposure and graded by standard morphology. All 9 subjects did not have any significant adverse effects. The urushiol patch test using the hydrogel delivery method demonstrated urushiol sensitivity. All doses of urushiol resulted in a local reaction, and severity of reactions was correlated with dosage of urushiol used in the patch test.

Antimicrobial Potential of Acetone and Methanol extracts of Rhus parviflora Roxb.

Rhus parviflora Roxb. (Anacardiaceae) is commonly known as “small flowered poison sumac”. It is found in Nepal, India, Bhutan and Sri Lanka at an altitude of 700–1100 masl. R. parviflora is recorded in Ayurvedic pharmacopoeia as having therapeutic uses for Vata vikara, which are the complications related to neurological disorders including anxiety, insomnia, epilepsy and rheumatoid arthritis. In present piece of work an effort is made to investigate the antimicrobial potential of acetone and methanol extracts were tested against various bacterial species viz., Bacillus cereus, Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella pullorum by using Agar well diffusion methods and against the fungal species (Rhizoctonia. solani, Alternaria alternata, Fusarium. solani, Aspergillus humicola, Aspergillus ochraceus, Penicillium. canadense) by Poisoned food technique. Results highlighted antimicrobial potential of R. parviflora extracts against the range of microbes, gram positive bacteria as well as gram negative bacterial species and fungal species, so that the extract from these plants can be used as broad spectrum antibiotic in near future.

Plant-Associated Dermatitis

Poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac are well-known causes of plant-associated allergic contact dermatitis (ACD), but the spectrum of plant-associated dermatoses covers these and much more. Plant-associated dermatitis can be categorized into phytophotodermatitis, irritant contact dermatitis, contact urticaria, and ACD. The focus of this article is ACD: the frequent causes, patch testing, association with cosmetic products, and patient education.

When the itching won’t stop: Counseling on exposure to poison ivy and other poisonous plants

With spring finally here, summer right around the corner, and the outdoors beckoning, many patients will be visiting their local drugstore or pharmacy seeking OTC treatments for poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac. Pharmacists are well positioned to counsel patients on preventing and treating exposure to these poisonous plants, the primary cause of allergic dermatitis in the United States.

Oh!/Archaic Mothers/Hey, Little Angel, Little Poison Sumac

Oh!/Archaic Mothers/Hey, Little Angel, Little Poison Sumac

Urushiol Detection using a Profluorescent Nitroxide

A method to visually detect minute amounts of urushiol, the toxic catechol from poison oak, poison ivy, and poison sumac, has been developed utilizing the reaction of a profluorescent nitroxide with the B-n-butylcatecholboronate ester formed in situ from urushiol and B-n-butylboronic acid. The resulting N-alkoxyamine is strongly fluorescent upon illumination with a fluorescent lamp, allowing the location of the toxic urushiol contamination to be visualized. This methodology constitutes the groundwork for the future development of a spray to detect urushiol to avoid contact dermatitis, as well as to detect catecholamines for biomedical applications.

An exotic invasive shrub has greater recruitment than native shrub species within a large undisturbed wetland

The idea that invasive species have higher recruitment and tolerate a wider range of conditions than native species requires more rigorous examination across a range of community types. We aimed to compare the recruitment and distribution patterns of adults and seedlings of an exotic invasive plant, glossy buckthorn (Frangula alnus), with four co-occurring native shrub species within a heterogeneous Wisconsin wetland. Detailed vegetation survey data were analyzed for spatial and compositional patterns of shrub distributions. In adult plant frequency and cover, buckthorn was not significantly different from the native winterberry. However, the number of glossy buckthorn seedlings exceeded by more than seven times the combined number of seedlings of the four native species. Sample units containing buckthorn adults were also much more likely to contain seedlings than for native shrubs. However, native seedlings were not more likely to occur at sites lacking adults, suggesting no greater dependence on recruitment away from adults in native species. Buckthorn, winterberry, poison sumac, and dogwood all showed preference for sites with higher tree densities and lower predominance of obligate wetland species in an ordination of 114 species. Glossy buckthorn adults and seedlings and winterberry seedlings were more widely distributed across seven community types than adults and seedlings of the other native species, suggesting broad tolerance to the conditions in different community types. High recruitment is the key factor that may allow glossy buckthorn to overcome community resistance and spread.

Identification of Poison Ivy, Poison Oak, Poison Sumac, and Poisonwood

Florida parks and woodlands are favorite places for many people who enjoy outdoor activities. Unfortunately, the native plants poison ivy, poison oak, poison sumac, and poisonwood can make these outings a miserable experience. All four contain urushiol, a plant oil that can cause a severe skin rash (dermatitis) when any part of the plant is contacted. Allergic reaction can occur directly by touching the plant or indirectly by coming into contact with the oil on animals, tools, clothes, shoes, or other items. Even the smoke from burning plants contains oil particles that can be inhaled and cause lung irritation. This revised 6-page fact sheet helps individuals learn to identify these plants in order to avoid contact with them. Children should be taught to recognize these plants, particularly poison ivy, as it is by far the most common. Written by Sydney Park Brown and SettingsJoe Sewards, and published by the UF Department of Environmental Horticulture, March 2012. ENH886/EP220: Identification of Poison Ivy, Poison Oak, Poison Sumac, and Poisonwood (ufl.edu)

Protective Effect of ELI-21C-76C Against Poison Ivy and Poison Oak Dermatitis in a Guinea Pig Model

Poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), poison oak (T. diversilobum), and poison sumac (T. vernix) are the primary causes of contact dermatitis in the United States, affecting 10–50 million Americans every year. The prevalence of sensitivity to poison ivy and poison oak in the general adult population ranges from 50% to 70% with peak frequency for sensitization occurring between the ages of 8 and 14. Outdoor activities as well as outdoor occupations which relate to firefighting, forestry and agriculture are at high risk, costing significant medical expenses and worker's disability. During our ongoing studies aimed at the discovery of an effective prophylactic treatment for toxicodendron dermatitis, we have developed a series of novel agents and tested the efficacy of these agents in an in vivo animal model. Here, we present the protective effect of our pro-drug ELI-21C-76C in our guinea pig experimental model.

Work-related hazards among farmers

Farmers have suffered from a variety of work-related injuries and diseases. They are exposed to a number of hazards related to farming activity. Farm machines like tractors and small cultivators and animal-related injuries are the primary causes of acute injuries and fatalities. Pesticide exposure is another dominant concern among farmers that can result in acute poisoning or some chronic health outcomes such as neurological diseases or some types of cancer. Farm work can also involve toxic chemicals such as gases (methane, ammonia, H2S, etc.), diesel exhaust particulates, miscellaneous chemicals, and heavy metals, any of which may cause respiratory disease, systemic poisoning, and other health effects in farmers. Some ingredients of pesticides, several plants (poison ivy and poison sumac), and sun and heat exposure can be causes of skin disease. The most frequent cause of respiratory disease is organic dust from livestock production and handling grain or hay. Furthermore, low back pain and osteoarthritis of the hip and knee are common problems among farmers. These are caused by poor ergonomic working conditions like heavy weight lifting, repetitive movement, and awkward postures which involve squatting for long periods of time while working near the ground, long working hours, and a heavy workload. Farmers are also vulnerable to a number of infectious diseases (avian influenza, scrub typhus, leptospirosis, etc.) that may be transmitted from animals or the farm environment. Noise and vibration from powered farm machinery, heat and cold, and a stressful environment due to diminished profit margins can affect farmers' health. Even though farmers are working under very poor working conditions, social and institutional support is insufficient. Greater interest and effort is required to improve farmers' working conditions.

Phylogenetic analysis of Toxicodendron (Anacardiaceae) and its biogeographic implications on the evolution of north temperate and tropical intercontinental disjunctions

Abstract Toxicodendron is a genus in the Rhus complex of Anacardiaceae with a disjunct distribution between eastern Asia and North America, extending to southeastern Asia and the neotropics. Nuclear (internal transcribed spacer, external transcribed spacer, and NIA‐i3) and chloroplast (ndhF and trnL‐F) sequences were used to construct phylogenetic relationships of Toxicodendron. Phylogenetic analysis of these data strongly support Toxicodendron as a monophyletic group distinct from other genera of the Rhus complex, and the phylogeny does not fully corroborate classification at the sectional level. Two temperate disjunct lineages were detected, one from section Toxicodendron and the other between the eastern North American Toxicodendron vernix and the eastern Asian Toxicodendron vernicifluum. Their divergence times were estimated to be 13.46 (7.95–19.42) and 7.53 (2.76–12.86) mya, respectively. The disjunction between section Griffithii (taxa from warm temperate to tropical Asia) and Toxicodendron striatum (from the neotropics) was supported and their divergence time was estimated to be 20.84 (11.16–30.52) mya in the early Miocene. Our biogeographic results and the paleontological data support the Bering land bridge as the most likely route to explain the temperate disjunctions, yet the tropical disjunction in Toxicodendron seems to be best explained by the North Atlantic land bridge hypothesis.

Urushiol congeners of Rhus sp. Mother tincture

Rhus genus belongs to the Anacardiaceae family. Several species such as Poison sumac (R. vernix L.) or Atlantic poison oak or poison ivy (R. toxicodendron L.) are well known to cause irritation, inflammation, and blistering of the skin of sensitive individuals [1]. This study focuses on several homoeopathic Mother Tinctures (MT) provided by Boiron Laboratory. Screening of urushiols congeners has been done on the heptanic fraction of the MT. A very sensitive HPLC-ESIMS system has been developed to allow us to identify 8 urushiol congeners (Table 1) on the basis of their fragmentation pattern [2]. Urushiol congeners (C17 and C15 substituted, monoene, diene, triene and tetraene) have been detected only in MT of Rhus sp. which in fact belong to the Toxicodendron synonym genus as described by Miller and Kuntze. (Table 1). The quantitative analyses of urushiols C15 substituted congeners, realised with a validated HPLC-DAD method, reveals a great variability between the Rhus sp. The urushiol congeners profiling could be used to identifiy Toxicodendron species for MT production.