Pitch Standards Research Articles

The Practical Humanities Implications of Pitch Standardization History

Practical humanities, as a methodological approach for establishing the social value of humanities, embodies a proactive attitude and an effort to innovate the lack of social communication in the humanities, which has been identified as a root cause of the so-called crisis within this humanities. The standard pitch acts as an international linguistic convention within the musical domain, serving as a mediator for musical communication and is deeply linked to socio-cultural texts. These texts merge musical traditions with the modern era, significantly broadening the discourse-generating logic within practical humanities into a pivotal cultural code. This research aims to construct a methodological model to explore the social implementation of practical humanities by clarifying the historical identities of 435Hz and 440Hz, which lead the narrative of pitch standardization. 435Hz addressed the reality of inconsistent pitch prevalent across the 19th century European musical practice scene by establishing an intermediary pitch standard for musical practice. 440Hz reflects the characteristics of a universal and practical pitch aimed at enhancing the efficiency of musical communication, against the backdrop of the expanding social topography which is linked to pragmatic thinking in the early 20th century.

Scanning and Splicing Atom Lithography for Self-traceable Nanograting Fabrication

Atom lithography is a unique method to fabricate self-traceable pitch standards and angle standards, but extending its structure area to millimeter-level for application is challenging. In this paper, on the one hand, we put forward a new approach to fabricate a full-covered self-traceable Cr nanograting by inserting and scanning a Dove prism in the Gaussian beam direction of atom lithography. On the other hand, we extend the structure area along the standing-wave direction by splicing two-step atom deposition. Both nanostructures manufactured via scanning atom lithography and splicing atom lithography demonstrate good pitch accuracy, parallelism, continuity, and homogeneity, which opens a new way to fabricate centimeter-level full-covered self-traceable nanograting and lays the basis for the application of square ruler and optical encoders at the nanoscale.

Optimization of laser focused atomic deposition by channeling**Project supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (Grant No. 2016YFA0200902), Science and Technology Commission of Shanghai Municipality, China (Grant No. 17JC1400801), and Young Scientists Fund of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 51705369).

Laser focused atomic deposition is a unique and effective way to fabricate highly accurate pitch standards in nanometrology. However, the stability and repeatability of the atom lithography fabrication process remains a challenging problem for massive production. Based on the atom–light interaction theory, channeling is utilized to improve the stability and repeatability. From the comparison of three kinds of atom–light interaction models, the optimal parameters for channeling are obtained based on simulation. According to the experimental observations, the peak to valley height of Cr nano-gratings keeps stable when the cutting proportion changes from 15% to 50%, which means that the channeling shows up under this condition. The channeling proves to be an effective method to optimize the stability and repeatability of laser focused Cr atomic deposition.

Deposition of Cr Atoms Using Switching-Detuning Light Mask for Direct Atom Lithography

Background: As progress on the nanofabrication has made semiconductor developed rapidly, there is an increasing need in precise pitch standards to calibrate the structure of devices at nanoscale. Nano-gratings fabricated by atom lithography are unique and suitable to act as precise pitch standard because its pitch distance is directly traceable to a natural constant. As the scaling down of nano-devices, it is very challenging to double the spatial frequency of nano-grating while keeping the self-traceability in atom lithography. Methods: In this study, the switching-detuning light mask is utilized for Cr atom lithography. During a single deposition process, the standing wave frequency is switching from positive detuning to negative detuning alternatively. Results: Nano-gratings fabricated using switching-detuning light mask is successfully replicated with double spatial frequency and self-traceability. Non-uniformity between neighboring Cr lines shows up with a corrected pitch of 107.15 Conclusion: Non-uniformity is mainly caused by the dipole force discrepancy between positive and negative detuning light mask. Therefore, to increase the high uniformity of nano-gratings, the deposition time of negative detuning should be at least twice as the positive detuning. On the other hand, to reduce the pitch uncertainty, it is necessary to reduce the distance between the atom beam and reflection mirror as close as possible. These two significant optimization designs are promising to increase the spatial frequency doubling performance with high uniformity and accuracy.

Characterization of 1D Grating Standard for National Laboratory Comparison Using Scanning Electron Microscope

Nanometrology, which is dimensional metrology on the nanometer scale, is rapidly gaining importance. In Nanometrology, length standard traceable measurements are required to certify the values obtained from measurements. Standard Reference Material (SRM) is a sample for calibrating the magnification scale of a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). The standard are produced by recording a precision, laser-generated, interference pattern using photosensitive materials and other processing steps. This fabrication technique provides an accurate measure of the period of the line-space. Some of the critical quality attributes of a pitch standard are (1) the fundamental pitch distance, (2) the uniformity of the pitch, (3) the quality of the line edge roughness, (4) the imaging contrast that it produces, (5) the accuracy of the certified pitch value, and (6) the traceability of the certified pitch value to an internationally recognized standard. In this paper, we describe characterization of 1D grating standard with nominal 700 nm and 300 nm using SEM and its measurement uncertainty. The measurements were performed at 10 differents measurement position at each nominal. Total number of pitch at all measurement position in each nominal was 180. An image was taken at each measurement position. The average pitch of them represents the pitch value of the specimens. The results shows measured pitch for nominal 700 nm is 700.3 nm and 300 nm is 293.6 nm with measurement uncertainty for nominal 700 nm is 5.5 nm nominal 300 nm is 4.4 nm.

Before and after the instrument revolution

In 1752 Johann Joachim Quantz commented on how German instrumental music had changed over the previous century. He criticized the 17th-century repertory as looking ‘very confusing and hazardous on paper’, owing to its florid passagework and use of scordatura strings. Writing from an aesthetic viewpoint that valued melodic simplicity, he complained: ‘They thought more highly of difficult pieces than of easy ones, and sought to excite admiration rather than to please’. He also satirized the attempts by earlier generations at musical representation, such as pieces that imitated bird-song or the sounds of the trumpet or hurdy-gurdy. Quantz’s preference was for instrumental music written after 1700, exhibiting Italian or French styles, or combining these two traditions in a mixed style that he regarded as distinctively German. His favoured repertory was the product of what Bruce Haynes dubbed the ‘instrument revolution’, namely the introduction of French-style violins and woodwind in the late 17th century, with associated changes in pitch standards.

Optimization of Nano-Grating Pitch Evaluation Method Based on Line Edge Roughness Analysis

Abstract Pitch uncertainty and line edge roughness are among the critical quality attributes of a pitch standard and normally the analyses of these two parameters are separate. The analysis of self-traceable Cr atom lithography nano-gratings shows a positive relevance and sensitivity between LER and evaluated standard deviation of pitch. Therefore, LER can be used as an aided pre-evaluation parameter for the pitch calculation method, such as the gravity center method or the zero-crossing points method. The optimization of the nano-grating evaluation method helps to obtain the accurate pitch value with fewer measurements and provide a comprehensive characterization of pitch standards.

Certification of New Standard Reference Material 2806b Medium Test Dust in Hydraulic Fluid.

A new material has been certified to become Standard Reference Material (SRM) 2806b - Medium Test Dust in Hydraulic Fluid. SRM 2806b consists of trace polydisperse, irregularly shaped mineral dust particles suspended in hydraulic fluid. The certified values of SRM 2806b are the projected area circular-equivalent diameters of the collected dust particles from the hydraulic fluid. The dimensional measurements were determined from the area of the collected dust particles using images obtained from automated scanning electron microscopy (SEM) followed by image analysis. An automated SEM and an automated image analysis software allowed the processing of over 29 million particles. The dimensional calibration of the SEM images (actual length per pixel and thus the actual projected diameters) are traceable to the NIST Line Scale Interferometer (LSI) through a NIST calibrated Geller MRS-4XY pitch standard. The certified diameters are correlated with the numeric concentration of particles greater than each diameter, referred to as the cumulative number size distribution. SRM 2806b is intended to be used to calibrate liquid-borne optical particle counters in conjunction with the reference method ISO 11171:2010.

Laser-focused Cr atomic deposition pitch standard as a reference standard

A chromium (Cr) grating pitch standard is fabricated by a technique of laser-focused atomic deposition. Cosine errors of the grating standard are analyzed and controlled under a relative error of 6×10−6 after 10-times iterative calibration. The dimension properties of the standard are measured and analyzed by a calibrated metrological atom force microscope (AFM) with large range. The experimental results show the grating standard has a good uniformity and structural periodicity. Hence, the laser-focused Cr atomic deposition grating can work as a reference standard.

Fabrication and measurement of traceable pitch standard with a big area at trans-scale

Atom lithography with chromium can be utilized to fabricate a pitch standard, which is directly traceable to the wavelength of the laser standing waves. The result of a calibrated commercial AFM measurement demonstrates that the pitch standard is (212.8±0.1) nm with a peak-to-valley-height (PTVH) better than 20 nm. The measurement results show the high period accuracy of traceability with the standing laser wavelength (λ/2 = 212.78 nm). The Cr nano-grating covers a 1000 μm×500 μm area, with a PTVH better than 10 nm. The feature width broadening of the Cr nanostructure has been experimentally observed along the direction of the standing waves. The PTVH along the Gaussian laser direction is similar to a Gaussian distribution. Highly uniform periodic nanostructures with a big area at the millimeter scale, and the surface growth uniformity of the Cr nano-grating, show its great potential in the application of a traceable pitch standard at trans-scales.

A kind of multi-step method for measuring pitch deviation of a gear

The inspection of a gear's pitch deviation is one of the most important tests on gears. The specifications of gears are usually assessed using gear measuring instruments or coordinate measuring machines. The National Metrology Institute of Japan and the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt proposed the closure technique for measuring gear pitch deviation, which can eliminate the systematic errors in pitch measurement, and can also be used for calibrating pitch standards. The reference to a closure technique—a kind of multi-step method for measuring pitch deviation—is introduced, of which the measurement process is relatively simple, and systematic errors can also be eliminated. Two gears’ pitch deviations were measured by adopting the closure technique and multi-step method, respectively. The result shows that the multi-step method can also be used for highly accurate measurements of pitch deviation.

Beats, ratios, and commas: Teaching tuning and temperament to music students

Undergraduate music students have many preconceived notions about tuning and temperament. For most of them, a piano tuned in equal temperament is perfectly “in tune” and A4 = 440 Hz is the only pitch standard that has ever existed. We find these naïve conceptions about tuning and temperament to be common among our introductory Physics of Music students--music majors, students pursuing majors in the sciences, and other non-science majors. In this paper we describe how we address some of these issues. We teach the mathematical underpinnings of equal, Pythagorean, just, and meantone temperaments, as well as their musical advantages and disadvantages, through the use of live demonstrations and recorded examples. We also describe our future plans to use recorded examples and available local resources—including reproductions of Baroque woodwinds tuned to A4 = 415 Hz and a 1799 organ at A4 = 409 Hz—to give students a broader understanding of historical and modern pitch standards.

Traceable pitch metrology: supporting the development of patterned media and more

The data storage industry seeks data densities of several terabits per square inch, corresponding to dot pitch <15 nm. Cost constraints prohibit using commercial microscopes designed for accurate measurements. However, we show it is possible to routinely make accurate pitch measurements with commercial general purpose atomic force microscopes and scanning electron microscopes by using a calibrated grating as a transfer standard. This provides short-term traceable calibration. Our accuracy was validated in two collaborative projects with three national metrology institutes. In the first project, we measured the pitch of a 144-nm two-dimensional grating. Our mean value agreed within 0.033 nm with that obtained at the PTB (Germany) optical diffraction lab. In the second project, described in detail here, we measured the pitch of a 70-nm one-dimensional grating. Because we used two measurement runs, the statistical treatment is more elaborate. We use basic statistical methods, such as analysis of variance, correlation, and tests of statistical significance, to draw key conclusions and enable us to combine the results of both runs to get an improved mean pitch value with some reduction in uncertainty. Our mean value agreed within 0.025 nm of the values found using the calibrated AFMs at National Institutes of Standard and Technology (NIST, USA) and National Metrology Centre (NMC, Singapore); furthermore, our uncertainty matched that of the other labs. The relative standard deviation (SD/mean) of individual pitch measurements is a figure of merit for the measurement system consisting of grating plus microscope.If the relative SD can be held below 0.5%, we have a clear roadmap to provide useful traceability for pitch standards down to 5 nm.

Measurement strategies and uncertainty estimations for pitch and step height calibrations by metrological atomic force microscope

Gratings and step height standards are useful transfer standards for lateral and vertical length scale calibration of atomic force microscopes (AFMs). In order to have traceability to the SI-meter, the standards must have been calibrated prior to use. Metrological AFMs (MAFMs) with online laser interferometric position measurements are versatile instruments for the calibrations. The developed task-specific measurement strategies for step height and pitch calibrations with the Centre for Metrology and Accreditation's (MIKES's) metrological AFM are described. The strategies were developed to give high accuracy and to reduce measurement time. Detailed uncertainty estimations for step height and grating pitch calibrations are also given. Standard uncertainties are 0.016 and 0.018 nm for 300 and 700 nm pitch standards, respectively, and 0.21 and 0.44 nm for 7 and 1000 nm step height standards.

213 nm pitch standards fabricated using atomic lithography

Atomic lithography is a technique in which nearly resonant light is used to pattern an atom beam periodically. In this article, a 425 nm laser light standing wave is used to focus a beam of chromium atoms to fabricate the period of the nanoscale pitch standards of 213 ± 0.1 nm. The height was 4 nm. The (FWHM) width is 64 ± 6 nm. And this result will be analysed theoretically. The tracing of atoms is numerical simulated based on particle-optics and the factors of affecting deposition result will be found in this article.

유물 편경의 음향 분석을 통한 아악 황종음고의 추정

This study aimed to figure out the numbers and note distributions and sexagenary cycles of old pyeongyoungs systematically, and estimate the nominal frequency of whangjongeum, the Korean tradition pitch standard. As a total 214 old stones in the National Palace Museum, the National Kukak Center, the Kukak National High School were counted by notes and sexagenaries. The nominal frequencies of 17 old whangjong stones` sounds were categorized by cluster analysis method. Using nominal frequencies of stones according to their sexagenaries and Korean traditional intonation were used to estimate the nominal frequencies of the whangjong. The nominal frequency can be estimated by 22 Keychuk stones as 266.9 Hz, by Cheongyu and Gabja stones as 262.4~262.5 Hz, and by Gabjin, Sowha 12 and Sowha 13 as Estimating by 22 Kyechuk stones which were matched with the records. These results seem to be more reliable, because it is based on the whol samples of old pyeongyoungs, while the former studies have been based on couples of whangjong stones` sounds.

Pitch standards, playback speeds, and metronome marks

<xhtml:span xmlns:xhtml="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en"> On 16 February 1859 the French government passed a law that fixed the frequency of the A note above middle C at 435 Hz.</xhtml:span>

Nanoscale Pitch Standards Sample Fabricated using Laser-Focused Atomic Deposition

Problem statement: Nanotechnology is already a large sector of industry and science research and it is expected to continue to grow at very fast rate. The determination of absolute measurements of length at the nanometer scale and below is very difficult and expensive. So the nanoscale metrology standard is needed. Approach: The laser-focused atomic deposition is a new way to establish nanoscale pitch standards. When the atoms pass though laser standing wave field, the atoms will change the moving trajectory and be focused to the node (or antinode) of the laser standing wave according to the detuning of laser frequency and atomic resonant frequency. Because of the period of the laser standing wave, laser mask will form the anologue of an array of cylindrical lense. If a substrate is positioned at the focal plane of this lens array, a periodic structure is depositing onto the surface. The period of this structure is λ/2 of laser. Results: In this letter, a 425 nm laser light standing wave is used to focus a beam of chromium atoms to fabricate the nanoscale pitch standards sample of 213±0.1 nm. The height was 4 nm. The (FWHM) width of 64±6 nm. Conclusion/Recommendations: The period of this structure is λ2 of laser, whose spatial period can be traced directly to an atomic transtition frequency and the uncertainty possibility is 10-5, which is fitted to be as the nanopitch standards.

Multilaboratory comparison of traceable atomic force microscope measurements of a 70-nm grating pitch standard

The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Advanced Surface Microscopy (ASM), and the National Metrology Centre (NMC) of the Agency for Science, Technology, and Research (A*STAR) in Singapore have completed a three-way interlaboratory comparison of traceable pitch measurements using atomic force microscopy (AFM). The specimen being used for this comparison is provided by ASM and consists of SiO2 lines having a 70-nm pitch patterned on a silicon substrate. For this comparison, NIST used its calibrated atomic force microscope (C-AFM), an AFM with incorporated displacement interferometry, to participate in this comparison. ASM used a commercially available AFM with an open-loop scanner, calibrated with a 144-nm pitch transfer standard. NMC/A*STAR used a large scanning range metrological atomic force microscope with He-Ne laser displacement interferometry incorporated. The three participants have independently established traceability to the SI (International System of Units) meter. The results obtained by the three organizations are in agreement within their expanded uncertainties and at the level of a few parts in 104.

Analysis of Voice Signal Based On High Pitch, Low Pitch, FIIR and IIR Spectrum Suitable For Pervasive Computing Using MatLab

Voice Signal Analysis (VSA) is the process of analyzing the voice signal using the different parameters of DSP. Pitch value define the frequency of the sound, perfect pitch refers to the ability of some persons to recognize the pitch of a voice note without any discernable pitch standard. Formant analysis calculates the peak points of power spectral density for a selected .wav file. In Digital Signal Processing various parameters like Pitch Analysis, Single Echo, Multiple Eco, FIR Reverb, IIR Reverb, Flat Response Reverb, Formant Analysis, Flange, Fade-In, and Fade-Out are mentioned. If the original voice signal is having any of this effect, then it can be visualized by the spectrum of original and effected signal. Here spectrum analysis based on four parameters (High Pitch, Low Pitch, FIIR and IIR) is presented. The proposed analysis is effective for different purposes as to differentiate the original and fake voice, for security purpose etc. and also for pervasive computing for the reason that before this analysis, signal is first compressed to about 50% with out changing the extension of recorded voice signal.