Physical Punishment Research Articles

The Phenomenon of Punishment at Pesantren in South Sulawesi: An Islamic Law and Islamic Education Approaches

Pesantren (Islamic boarding school) is an educational institution in Indonesia that instills Islamic values in its students. In pesantren, the punishment given to students aims not to hurt, but to contain educational values. This study aims to analyze the application of punishment in pesantren. This research is qualitative with Islamic law and Islamic education approaches. The informants comprised several teachers and students of Pondok Pesantren DDI Mangkoso, South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Data were collected through observation, interview, and documentation, then analyzed using the descriptive analysis technique. The results showed that the forms of punishment applied to Islamic boarding schools were reprimands, assignments, and psychological and physical punishments. Punishment in Islamic boarding schools includes ta‘zīr in Islamic law. Even though there are written rules, in some cases, the implementation of ta‘zīr is very simple (depending on the subjectivity of the kiai or teacher), so it lacks legal certainty and only aims to give a deterrent effect to perpetrators. According to Islamic education, the punishments applied by Islamic boarding schools have met the objectives of implementing educational sanctions, namely a deterrent effect for the perpetrators and a deterrent for others. Therefore, legal certainty is not the main goal in determining and implementing punishment in Islamic boarding schools, but to improve the students’ scientific and moral quality. This research has implications for teacher innovation and various methods in Islamic boarding school education so that students participate in the educational process willingly and happily, not because they are forced or afraid of punishment.

Parenting practices, bullying perpetration, and conduct problems among Ukrainian children

BackgroundPositive and consistent parenting practices are associated with the positive mental health of children. However, little is understood about the implications of the Russian military invasion on family dynamics in Ukraine. ObjectiveThis research aims to estimate the prevalence of childhood conduct disorder (CD) and bullying perpetration and their association with parenting practices among Ukrainian children living in proximity to the war. Participants and settingThe sample included 2763 Ukrainian children ranging in age from 10 to 17 years (M = 12.6, SD = 1.23), 56.23 % girls. Children attended public secondary schools in Eastern Ukraine, mostly in Kharkiv and Kharkiv oblasts (regions). MethodsChildren reported on sociodemographic characteristics, parenting practices, CD, and bullying perpetration using smartphones, computers, or tablets, at home or in school IT classrooms. Data were collected on a secure online platform. ResultsChildren reported teasing (23.68 %), spreading rumors (24.51 %), helping to harass (17.31 %), threatening to hurt or hit (21.65 %) other students, breaking rules (28.13 %), getting in fights (17.13 %), cheating (43.16 %), and being spanked by parents (30 %). Also, 1.83 % of girls and 3.43 % of boys met a borderline cutoff for CD. Lack of parent involvement was associated with increased CD and bullying risks. Poor parent monitoring, inconsistent discipline, and corporal punishment were associated with increased CD but not with bullying. CD mediated the association of poor monitoring, inconsistent discipline, and corporal punishment with bullying. ConclusionParental involvement, monitoring, consistent discipline, and avoidance of physical punishments are important practices that can reduce disruptive behavior and aggressive tendencies among Ukrainian children affected by the Russian war.

Особенности воспитания детей в условиях первобытного общества

The article substantiates the expediency of addressing the study of upbringing of the younger generation in the conditions of primitive-communal relations. Based on the analysis of scientific literature, the features character-izing the upbringing of children at the stage of the primeval society are generalized and revealed, which forms the novelty of the conducted study. The life path of a child from birth to the period of adulthood is shown. It re-veals the role of preparation for the initiation rite as a prototype of schooling and a prerequisite for the institu-tionalization of education. The high efficiency of upbringing in the conditions of primitive society as a conse-quence of coincidence of goals of adults and children is substantiated. Changes in the nature and content of education at the stage of decomposition of primitive communal relations are outlined. Innovations in prepara-tion and carrying out of initiation rites are presented. The role of social differentiation in the discrepancy of goals and tasks of children and adults is shown, which led to a decrease in the effectiveness of upbringing and the spread of physical punishment as evidence of the helplessness of adults to achieve their goals by other means. Drawing on the analysis of the experience of children's upbringing in primitive society, a number of practice-oriented “history lessons” are formulated for addressing the issues of upbringing of the younger gen-eration in modern conditions.

Long-term impacts of the Bandebereho programme on violence against women and children, maternal health-seeking, and couple relations in Rwanda: a six-year follow-up of a randomised controlled trial

Programmes that work with parents to build couple relationship and parenting skills and include critical reflection on gender norms are a promising approach for reducing violence against women and children. However, there is limited evidence of their longer-term impact. In Rwanda, the Bandebereho programme engaged expectant and current parents of children under five years. At 21-months, Bandebereho demonstrated positive impacts on intimate partner violence (IPV), child physical punishment, maternal health-seeking, and couple relations. This study seeks to explore whether those outcomes are sustained six years later. A six-year follow-up to a two-arm, multi-site randomised controlled trial was conducted in four districts of Rwanda between May and September 2021. At baseline, couples were randomly assigned to either the 15-session intervention (n=575) or a control group (n=624). At this follow-up, 1003 men and 1021 women were included in intention to treat analysis. Generalised estimating equations with robust standard errors were used to fit the models. This study was registered with Clinicaltrials.gov (NCT04861870). Bandebereho has lasting effects on IPV and physical punishment of children, alongside multiple health and relationship outcomes. Compared to the control group: intervention women report less past-year physical (OR=0.45, 95% CI 0.34-0.60 p<0.001), sexual (OR=0.50, 95% CI 0.37-0.67, p<0.001), economic (OR=0.47 95% CI 0.34-0.64, p<0.001), and moderate or severe emotional (OR=0.40 95% CI 0.29-0.56, p<0.001) IPV. Intervention couples report less child physical punishment (OR=0.72, p=0.009 for men; OR=0.68, p=0.017 for women), fewer depressive symptoms (OR=0.52, p<0.001 for men; OR=0.50, p<0.001 for women), less harmful alcohol use, and improved maternal health-seeking, father engagement, and division of household labour and decision-making. Our study expands the evidence, demonstrating that programmes engaging men and women to promote collaborative and non-violent couple relations can result in sustained reductions in family violence six years later. The Echidna Giving Fund, Grand Challenges Canada, the Oak Foundation, and Wellspring Philanthropic Fund supported this study.

РЕГИОНАЛЬНЫЙ ВАКУУМ ЧИНОВНИЧЕСКИХ ЗЛОУПОТРЕБЛЕНИЙ И МЕТОДЫ ЕГО ПОДДЕРЖАНИЯ В СРЕДЕ ОДНОДВОРЦЕВ ЦЕНТРАЛЬНОГО ЧЕРНОЗЕМЬЯ С СЕРЕДИНЫ XVII ПО СЕРЕДИНУ XIX ВЕКОВ

In this article, the author examines the manifestation of such a phenomenon in smallholders life as a vacuum of regional abuses, which prevented not only the correct implementation of local laws by honest officials, but also the decisions of higher authorities. This vacuum was maintained by the following methods. Firstly, the very fame of the low efficiency of the courts, secondly, the physical punishment of those who seek justice, and thirdly, significantfinancial costs for suing and complaining. Using the vacuum parasitized on such natural processes as the slowness of the administrative system, the strictness of the hierarchy of regional power and strong social ties between officials and the upper classes. However, everything voiced in its totality met a worthy opponent in the face of the one-courtyard people, with their militant mentality, education and active judicial-complaint initiative.

Assessing the Implementation of School Discipline Policy in Ghanaian Basic Schools

As part of the effort to create safer and more protective learning environments in Ghanaian schools, the Ghana Education Service in 2017 officially banned all forms of corporal punishment and required teachers to adopt a positive discipline toolkit based on a manual prescribed as an alternative to corporal punishment. This study sought to investigate the implementation of the alternative positive discipline policy in the basic schools of Ghana. The study utilized qualitative research approach to gather data from 15 teachers through semi-structured interviews. Based on thematic analysis, the study showed that the teachers used many discipline methods per the policy on school discipline. They included writing lines, manual work, physical punishments, time-out periods, classroom rules, appointment and withdrawal of positions, and counselling to manage students’ behavior. The study, however, found that teachers perceive the positive discipline methods to be ineffective in managing students’ behavior compared to the use of corporal punishment. The implication drawn from the study was that despite the use of some alternative discipline methods by the teachers, they have not abandoned all forms of corporal punishments in schools. The study therefore recommended, among other things, that school leaders and other authorities institute surveillance and monitoring systems to check violators and sanction teachers who refuse to employ the non-violent discipline methods prescribed by the Ghana Education Service.

Child abuse and neglect and mental health outcomes in adulthood by ethnicity: Findings from a 40-year longitudinal study in New Zealand/Aotearoa

BackgroundLongitudinal studies consistently report adverse long-term outcomes of childhood maltreatment. Little is known about the impact of childhood maltreatment on mental health among a marginalized population (New Zealand Māori); therefore, we cannot assume the effects of maltreatment are the same across the population. ObjectiveAssociations were examined between childhood sexual abuse (CSA), childhood physical punishment (CPP) and childhood neglect (CN) (<16 years) and mental health outcomes 18–40 years, by ethnicity (Māori/non-Māori). Participants and settingData from the Christchurch Health and Development Study, a study of a birth cohort of 1265 children born in Christchurch in 1977. By age 40, 17.8 % (n = 191) reported New Zealand Māori ethnic identity; 82.2 % (n = 883) were non-Māori. MethodsCSA, CPP (<16 years) were measured at 18, 21 years; CN was measured at 40 years. Major depression, anxiety disorder, suicidal ideation, alcohol abuse/dependence and cannabis abuse/dependence were measured at ages 21, 25, 30, 35 and 40 years. Childhood confounding variables controlled. Analyses were extended to include Māori ethnicity. ResultsAfter statistical adjustment, experience of severe childhood maltreatment increased odds of mental health problems 1.8–2.6×, compared to no maltreatment; the effects of maltreatment were similar for males and females. For Māori, some higher rates of mental health problems were seen among those maltreated, no statistically significant associations were detected after Bonferroni correction (among severe maltreatment vs. no maltreatment). Limitations should be considered when interpreting results. ConclusionsExposure to childhood maltreatment has long-term effects into middle-age. Further research employing culturally-sensitive approaches may help clarify Māori childhood maltreatment outcomes.

Adverse childhood experiences and mental ill-health - obesity comorbidity among British adolescents - A national cohort study.

Mental ill-health and obesity are increasingly prevalent in childhood with both conditions likely to co-occur. Less is known about associations between adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and mental ill-health and obesity (MH-OB) comorbidity in adolescence. The aim of this study was to examine associations between ACEs and MH-OB comorbidity in adolescents from a national cohort study. Participants; 10,734 adolescents (males = 50.3%) from the Millennium Cohort Study with 6 ACEs (for e.g., parental MH, drug/alcohol misuse, physical punishment) collected prospectively between ages 3-11 years. MH-OB comorbidity (binary indicator) was based on objectively measured BMI (for overweight/obesity) and self-reported depression/anxiety at ages 14 and 17. Associations between: 1.total ACE scores (0, 1, 2 or ≥3) and additionally each individual ACE, and MH-OB, were analysed used logistic regression, separately at 14 and 17 years. At age 14, ACE scores were associated with higher odds for MH-OB comorbidity, with a gradient of increasing odds ratios (OR) with increasing ACEs. Individuals with 1 (OR:1.22[95%CI: 1.1-1.6]), 2 (OR:1.7[1.3-2.3]), or ≥3ACEs (OR:2[1.5-2.6]) had increased odds for MH-OB comorbidity compared to those with 0 ACEs. At age 17, associations between ACE scores and MH-OB were attenuated and observed in individuals with ≥3ACEs (OR:1.54, 1.1-2.3). Parental MH (OR:1.5, 1.2-1.9), intimate-partner violence (OR:1.2, 1.1-1.6), physical punishment (OR:1.3, 1.1-1.6), bullying (OR:2, 1.6-2.5) were associated with MH-OB comorbidity age 14. However, only parental MH (OR:1.5, 1.1-2.1) and bullying (OR:1.6, 1.2-2.1) were associated with MH-OB comorbidity at age 17. ACEs are associated with increased risk of MH-OB comorbidity in between ages 14 and 17. These findings provide timely opportunity for interventions to reduce risk and are pertinent given that MH and obesity contribute significantly to global burden of disease and track across the lifecourse.

Spare the rod, spoil the child: measurement and learning from an intervention to shift corporal punishment attitudes and behaviors in Grenada, West Indies.

Childrearing practices in the Caribbean and other postcolonial states have long been associated with corporal punishment and are influenced by expectations of children for respectfulness and obedience. Evidence across settings shows that physical punishment of young children is both ineffective and detrimental. Saving Brains Grenada (SBG) implemented a pilot study of an intervention based on the Conscious Discipline curriculum that aimed to build adult caregivers' skills around non-violent child discipline. We hypothesized that attitudes towards corporal punishment would shift to be negative as adults learned more positive discipline methods, and that child neurodevelopment would correspondingly improve. This report reviews the impact of monitoring and evaluation on the design and implementation of the intervention. Study 1 presents findings from the pilot study. Despite positive gains in neurodevelopmental outcomes among children in the intervention compared to controls, attitudes towards corporal punishment and reported use of it did not change. Additionally, several internal conflicts in the measures used to assess corporal punishment behaviors and attitudes were identified. Study 2 is a response to learning from Study 1 and highlights the importance for monitoring and evaluation to be data-informed, adaptive, and culturally appropriate. In Study 2, the SBG research team conducted cognitive interviews and group discussions with stakeholders to assess the content and comprehensibility of the Attitudes Towards Corporal Punishment Scale (ACP). This yielded insights into the measurement of attitudes towards corporal punishment and related parenting behavior, and prompted several revisions to the ACP. To accurately evaluate the intervention's theory of change and its goal to reduce violence against children, reliable and appropriate measures of attitudes towards corporal punishment and punishment behaviors are needed. Together, these two studies emphasize the value of continuous monitoring, evaluation, and learning in the implementation, adaptation, evaluation, and scaling of SBG and similar early childhood development interventions.

Psychosocial Traumatic Environments: A Clinical Case of Childhood Abuse

Traumatic psychosocial environments directly impact adult life. Compromised self-esteem, emotional self-regulation, and interpersonal relationships are observed, and a predisposition to the presence of mental and personality disorders is exacerbated in cases of sexual abuse. Science has presented quantitative and statistical studies on child abuse and a limited number of studies that have investigated the consequences and long-term impacts on the lives of individuals who suffered maltreatment in childhood and did not have access to forms of protection or social support after the identification of child abuse, especially in Brazil. Therefore, this case report is a qualitative study of an ideographic nature which aims to evaluate the “particular” form of abuse repercussions in the life of a 60-year-old woman, giving voice to the victim of child abuse through the process of the investigation and complex analysis of her life history and family relationships. The psychological assessment protocol included a semi-structured interview, active listening, a genogram, and a mental status examination. The results reveal the coexistence of a rigid and violent environment with the presence of physical punishment and child sexual abuse. Self-injurious episodes and suicide attempts began in adolescence. Changes in mood, changes in remote memory, negative thoughts, self-injurious behavior, suicidal ideation and attempts, clinical comorbidities, a lack of interest in romantic relationships, and the repetition of behaviors that perpetuate the cycle of abuse and violence (physical, psychological, and patrimonial) were identified. The diagnostic criteria for bipolar disorder with dependent and borderline personality traits have been established. The case requires a multi-disciplinary follow-up with the use of medication to control and remit the symptoms.

Examining epidemiological patterns of the components of the severe physical punishment index used by UNICEF

BackgroundUNICEF's severe physical punishment of children index is composed of the combination of two practices (being “beat” and “hit on head”) and may be considered as a proxy for child physical abuse. ObjectiveThis study aimed to determine whether the prevalence patterns of these two punishments differ substantially and consequently might obscure understanding of individual punishments and generate an inadequate index. MethodsNationally representative samples of households with children aged 5–14 years from low- and middle-income countries with populations of ≥10 million with datasets available from UNICEF's 6th Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey cycle were used. Weighted prevalences were determined for the two punishments and their combination and by child age and sex for all countries meeting inclusion criteria. ResultsAcross the 21 datasets from 18 countries, prevalence of being beat varied from 0.2% to 12.6%, and hit on head from 1.6% to 46.1%. The majority of the prevalence of the combined index was accounted for by being hit on head in all but one survey. In several, but not all, surveys, males and younger children were more likely to be exposed to each of the punishments.Across punishments, there were some surveys with differing age prevalence patterns, but minimal differences by sex. ConclusionsObscuring the epidemiology of being beat, arguably the more severe of the two, is one consequence of combining these punishments into a single index. Being beat should be reported separately and a new composite index of severe and abusive physical punishment should be considered.

Effects of a preventive parenting intervention for bereaved families on the intergenerational transmission of parenting attitudes: Mediating processes.

This study evaluated whether the Family Bereavement Program (FBP), a prevention program for parentally bereaved families, improved parenting attitudes toward parental warmth and physical punishment in young adult offspring 15 years after participation and identified mediational cascade pathways. One hundred fifty-six parents and their 244 offspring participated. Data were collected at pretest (ages 8-16), posttest, and six- and 15-year follow-ups. Ethnicity of offspring was: 67% non-Hispanic Caucasian, 16% Hispanic, 7% African American, 3% Native American, 1% Asian or Pacific Islander, and 6% other; 54% were males. There was a direct effect of the FBP on attitudes toward physical punishment; offspring in the FBP had less favorable attitudes toward physical punishment. There were also indirect effects of the FBP on parenting attitudes. The results supported a cascade effects model in which intervention-induced improvements in parental warmth led to fewer externalizing problems in adolescence/emerging adulthood, which in turn led to less favorable attitudes toward physical punishment. In addition, intervention-induced improvements in parental warmth led to improvements in anxious romantic attachment in mid-to-late adolescence/emerging adulthood, which led to more favorable attitudes toward parental warmth in emerging/young adulthood. These findings suggest that the effects of relatively brief prevention programs may persist into subsequent generations.

Levels of support for legislative bans to end physical punishment in schools and homes in a national sample

ObjectivesPhysical punishment of children remains quite common and yet has only negative effects on children's health, making it an important public health problem. This study was designed to assess positive attitudes about and perceived normative support for the use of physical punishment with children, as well as attitudes regarding prohibition of physical punishment in homes and schools. Study designThis was a cross-sectional national survey of a diverse sample of US adults (N = 3049). MethodsThis survey, conducted in Fall 2020, assessed attitudes and perceived norms regarding physical punishment use using continuous measures as well as support and perceived support for policies prohibiting physical punishment in homes and schools in the United States. ResultsRespondents who had positive attitudes toward physical punishment (39%) and who perceived normative support for physical punishment (41%) were not in the majority. While 65% agreed that there should be a federal ban on physical punishment in public schools, only 18% perceived that most US adults would support such a ban. Persons who were older (aged ≥55 years), men, living in the southern United States, or who themselves were hit more frequently as children were significantly less likely than their counterparts to support a federal ban in schools. ConclusionsBased on a national sample, there is strong support for a federal ban on physical punishment in US schools; yet this normative belief is unrecognized. Social norms campaigns should capitalize on this pluralistic ignorance to increase mobilization toward policy reform and reduction of harm to children through bans of physical punishment in public schools.

Soft linguistic terrorism: 21st century re-articulations

Abstract Over three decades ago, Gloria Anzaldúa identified ideologies of linguistic standardization as an oppressive force in the Rio Grande Valley of south Texas as well as the local university. Such ideologies were used to delegitimize Chicanos via “linguistic terrorism,” or, routine forms of psychological and physical punishment meant to enforce idealized white, middle-class, monolingual social norms. However, times have changed. To account for more recent conditions, I qualify contemporary manifestations as soft linguistic terrorism, which relies more so on incentivization (reward as opposed to punishment) and ideological recruitment (enforcement based on the appearance of consent), yet continue to reproduce the near identical racializing ideologies Anzaldúa identified decades ago. Using a linguistic anthropological approach to discourse analysis, this article focuses on ethnographic interviews with students and faculty to illustrate how forms of linguistic terrorism have been rearticulated via raciolinguistic ideologies in the same region and at the same university that inspired Anzaldúa’s formulation of linguistic terrorism in the 1980s.

PROFESSIONAL PERCEPTIONS OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE PARENTING STYLES AND COPING RESPONSES OF FATHERS AND MOTHERS REGISTERED WITH THE CHILD PROTECTION SYSTEM

Families registered with the Child Protection System tend to have poor parenting methods, which, in turn, lead to inadequate ways of coping with stress. This makes them highly vulnerable families. These shortcomings tend to be more prevalent among fathers than mothers. By identifying these shortcomings and analysing them, specific strategies can be developed to overcome them. The aim of this paper is to analyse differences between the parenting styles and coping responses of mothers and fathers registered with the Child Protection System, as perceived by the professionals from the said service. A cross-sectional study was carried out based on the perceptions of professionals attached to the Child Protection System. The findings show that the professionals deem that there are significant differences between maternal and paternal parenting models and ways of coping with stress. The mothers were viewed as having more components of appropriate parenting, while the fathers tended to use physical punishment more often. As for coping methods, the professionals observed that the mothers have more previous experience of conflicts, they spend more time preparing to tackle a problem, and they have a greater sense of being able to take possible advantage of the situation. The results point to the need to reinforce and specialize in training strategies for parents. This is because co-parenting has a positive impact on child development and boosts family functioning. Key words Child Protection System, parenting styles, coping responses, mothers and fathers, professional perceptions

Unfavorable public attitude toward people with epilepsy in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta-analysis study.

This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to show the pooled prevalence of unfavorable public attitude toward people with epilepsy (UPATPWE) as well as the effect estimates of associated factors in Ethiopia. Between December 1 and 31, 2022, we searched for the English version of published research reports on public attitude toward epilepsy in Ethiopia in PubMed/Medline, Science Direct, Cochrane Library, Google Scholar, and PsycINFO. The research reports' quality was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. We extracted the relevant information from the searched papers in a Microsoft Excel format and imported it to STATA version 15.0, for analysis. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) reports guideline was used. A random-effects meta-analysis model was used to estimate the Der Simonian and Laird's pooled prevalence of unfavorable public attitude and its associated factors. Nine out of the accessed 104 research papers meeting the pre-specified criteria were included in this study. The overall pooled prevalence of UPATPWE in Ethiopia is 52.06 (95% CI: 37.54, 66.59), resulting in excommunication, physical punishments, and assaults against people with epilepsy as well as frequent lack of diagnosis and proper treatment. The pooled effect estimates for witnessing a seizure episode were done and it was (AOR = 2.70 [95% CI: 1.13, 6.46]). As interventions and new strategies to change attitudes and facilitate a supportive, positive, and socially inclusive environment for PWE may root in education and scientific research outputs, our result hopefully evokes the policy makers' attention for building a well-designed and comprehensive health education and campaign strategy.

The role of child, maternal and household factors in the reported use of physical punishment practices by Portuguese mothers

hysical punishment is the use of physical force to cause to body pain or discomfort, to correct children’s misbehaviour (Gershoff, 2008) and negatively impacts children’s development (Gershoff, 2002). To overcome limitations in the current state-of-art knowledge in Portugal, this study aimed to describe the maternal reports about the use of different physical punishment practices in the last year and to analyse the predictive role of child, maternal and household characteristics in the use of different physical punishment practices in the last year. A total of 289 Portuguese mothers of children aged 5 to 14 years completed the Escala de Crenças sobre a Punição Física (Machado et al., 2003) and the Inventário de Práticas Educativas Parentais (Machado et al., 2015). According to results, spanking child at the buttocks with the hand and slapping child’s hand, arm, or leg were the most reported punishment practices. Maternal tolerance toward physical punishment was the strongest and most consistent predictor of spanking child at the buttocks with the hand and slapping child’s hand, arm, or leg during the last year. Future cross-cultural studies may continue to explore the most used physical punishment practices and the characteristics that predict their use.

Do parenting behaviors intended as discipline vary by household religious affiliation in Cameroon?

BackgroundReligious affiliation may account for some variance in parenting behaviors used for disciplinary intent. However, most reported studies of this relationship are limited to high-income countries focused on Christianity. ObjectiveThis study aimed to determine whether parenting behaviors vary by religion in a low- and middle-income country between Protestant, Catholic, and Muslim groups. It was hypothesized that Protestant households would have higher odds of select parenting behaviors. Participants & settingsData from the 2014 Cameroonian Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey, containing a nationally representative household sample, were used. MethodsAdult caregivers in selected households with a child aged 1–14 years of age participated in interviews containing a standardized disciplinary measure asking about the exposure of one randomly selected child to a series of parent behaviors in the preceding month. ResultsOf the 4978 households, 41.6 % were Catholic, 30.9 % Protestant and 27.6 % Muslim. Spanking was the most common of the six types of physical punishments across groups with no association with household religion. In contrast, children in Protestant households had higher odds of being hit with an object compared to the other two groups, but only for younger children. Children in Protestant households also had higher odds of exposure to a combined approach, i.e., use of physical, psychological, and non-violent parent behaviors. ConclusionsThis study advances the examination of the potential influence of household religion on parenting behavior, however further inquiry is needed to examine these patterns in other settings with additional indices of religiosity and disciplinary beliefs.

The Violent Shepherd: Constructing Legitimate Violence in Pre-Nicene Christianity

Summary In the present article, I analyze Greek and Latin sources of pre-Nicene Christianity and argue that violence, although generally overlooked, constitutes an intrinsic and significant aspect of the early Christian model of pastoral rule. I premise my argument on an understanding of violence that rejects so-called ‘legitimist’ definitions, which subordinate the judgment on violence to a judgment on legitimacy and reserve the label of violence for illegitimate actions alone. Congenitally embedded in a network of conflictual relations, the shepherd of early Christian imagery is primarily tasked with the salvation of the sheep from enemies whose ambiguous identity, I argue, often betrays their provenance from within the flock. The shepherd is also engaged in disciplining his animals through measures that include severe physical punishments and exclusion from the herd. To conclude, I argue that the pastoral metaphor is itself an especially powerful instrument in the discursive construction of legitimate violence. For a relevant strand of ancient thought, to frame a particular institution in terms of the shepherd-flock relationship is, I argue, to conceive of it as replicative of the natural and normative order of reality, while also making certain acts of violence appear as the preferable course of action to be sought in the government of the community.

Social and Psychological Challenges Facing Orphaned Children Living in the Orphanage Centres in Tanzania

The study aimed to assess social and psychological challenges facing orphaned children living in the orphanages in Tanzania. The motivational theory of Abraham Maslow guided this study with the use of the qualitative approach. In-depth interviews were employed to collect data from the research participants. The study was carried out in four orphanage centres within three wards in Dar es Salaam Region. A purposive sampling technique was employed to get 29 participants for this study. Specifically, the study intends to answer the following unexplored questions: i) What are the social challenges facing orphaned children living in the orphanages? ii) What are the psychological challenges facing orphaned children living in the orphanages? The findings revealed that in the orphanages orphaned children experienced various social challenges including shortage of basic needs, shortage of educational materials, and lack of sport gears as well as poor health services. They also faced psychological challenges like physical punishment, bullying behaviours from fellows, segregation, isolation and poor attachment from their caregivers. Such challenges are indicators for defining ineffectiveness of caregivers in providing psychosocial services to orphaned children. The study concluded that in the present context, orphanages are not a good residence for orphans’ psychosocial wellbeing due to shortage of funds and presence of untrained personnel. The study recommended that, the government should formulate interventional policies and enact laws which would look after the welfare of orphaned children rather than depending on the institutional Care.