Driver Perception Research Articles

The Effects of Transparency and Reliability of In-Vehicle Intelligent Agents on Driver Perception, Takeover Performance, Workload and Situation Awareness in Conditionally Automated Vehicles

In the context of automated vehicles, transparency of in-vehicle intelligent agents (IVIAs) is an important contributor to driver perception, situation awareness (SA), and driving performance. However, the effects of agent transparency on driver performance when the agent is unreliable have not been fully examined yet. This paper examined how transparency and reliability of the IVIAs affect drivers’ perception of the agent, takeover performance, workload and SA. A 2 × 2 mixed factorial design was used in this study, with transparency (Push: proactive vs. Pull: on-demand) as a within-subjects variable and reliability (high vs. low) as a between-subjects variable. In a driving simulator, 27 young drivers drove with two types of in-vehicle agents during the conditionally automated driving. Results suggest that transparency influenced participants’ perception on the agent and perceived workload. High reliability agent was associated with higher situation awareness and less effort, compared to low reliability agent. There was an interaction effect between transparency and reliability on takeover performance. These findings could have important implications for the continued design and development of IVIAs of the automated vehicle system.

The driver’s instantaneous situation awareness when the alarm rings during the take-over of vehicle control in automated driving

Objective The driver’s instantaneous situation awareness in the process of take-over of vehicle control in automated driving has not yet been thoroughly investigated. The proposed research can provide a better understanding of the driver’s perceived characteristics and identify the most urgent information requirements of the on-site scenario when the driver’s eye sight returns from other distractors to the driving scene. Methods We conducted an experiment in simulated automated driving to study the participants’ ability of instantaneous hazard perception and judgment. The scene pictures, which were displayed in millisecond time, were used to imitate the situations that drivers would see when the distracted drivers returned their gaze from the distractive sources to the road in the simulated automated driving. Results The results show that the driving state, scene representation time and hazard levels affect the instantaneous situation awareness of drivers. In addition, the scene perception accuracy of the group who played games during automated driving is much lower than that of the group that chatted with the copilot. The longer picture-showing duration decreases the accuracy of hazard identification, whereas the shorter picture-showing duration increases the accuracy of hazard perception and the hazard rating score. Conclusions In conclusion, distraction reduces the accuracy of the instantaneous scene perception of drivers, and drivers behave more cautiously in decision making when the driving situations are more hazardous. This study provides a good theoretical basis for the design of hazard warning information for automated driving.

Jarvis in the car: Report on characterizing and designing in-vehicle intelligent agents workshop

As intelligent agents have become more popular at home, they have been progressively introduced into driving environments. Although previous research has discussed agent features and their effects on driver perception and performance, attributes that define in-vehicle agents and distinguish them from other intelligent agents have not been discussed clearly. Thus, we organized a workshop on characterizing and designing in-vehicle intelligent agents at the 13th International Conference on Automotive User Interfaces (AutoUI 2021). In this report, we integrated ideas generated during the workshop and identified user-centered action and autonomy as two attributes that define an agent, with functions and features as specific characteristics that vary agent design. The outcomes of this workshop can facilitate in-vehicle intelligent agent design and deliver optimal user experience, while providing insights on manipulating variables in controlled studies.

Effect of urban street trees on pedestrian safety: A micro-level pedestrian casualty model using multivariate Bayesian spatial approach

In the past decades, trees were considered roadside hazard. Street trees were removed to provide clear zone and improve roadside safety. Nowadays, street trees are considered to play an important role in urban design. Also, street tree is considered a traffic calming measure. Studies have examined the effects of urban street trees on driver perception, driving behaviour, and general road safety. However, it is rare that the relationship between urban street trees and pedestrian safety is investigated. In this study, a micro-level frequency model is established to evaluate the effects of tree density and tree canopy cover on pedestrian injuries, accounting for pedestrian crash exposure based on comprehensive pedestrian count data from a state in Australia, Melbourne. In addition, effects of road geometry, traffic characteristics, and temporal distribution are also considered. Furthermore, effects of spatial dependency and correlation between pedestrian casualty counts of different injury severity levels are accounted using a multivariate Bayesian spatial approach. Results indicate that road width, bus stop, tram station, on-street parking, and 85th percentile speed are positively associated with pedestrian casualty. In contrast, pedestrian casualty decreases when there is a pedestrian crosswalk and increases in tree density and canopy. Also, time variation in pedestrian injury risk is significant. To sum up, urban street trees should have favorable effect on pedestrian safety. Findings are indicative to optimal policy strategies that can enhance the walking environment and overall pedestrian safety. Therefore, sustainable urban and transport development can be promoted.

Driving Ability Evaluation and Rehabilitation for People With Alzheimer's Disease and Related Dementias.

Worldwide, it is estimated that around 50 million older adults have Alzheimer's disease and related dementias (ADRD). Cognitive deficits associated with ADRD may affect a driver's perception and decision-making and potentially cause safety concerns. Despite much research, there lacks a comprehensive cognitive evaluation to determine the driving capability of a person with ADRD and it is unclear what are the most effective training and interventions that help to enhance driving performance for these individuals. The purpose of this article is to conduct a comprehensive literature survey to review and summarize studies of driving performance evaluation and intervention for people with ADRD and discuss perspectives for future studies. Although many studies have investigated the correlations between driving behaviors and cognitive performances for people with ADRD, it remains unclear how driving behaviors and cognitive performances are associated with psychophysiological measures. We discussed the need to develop regular driving evaluation and rehabilitation protocol for people with ADRD. We also highlighted the potential benefit to combine driving tests with psychophysiological measures to assist in characterizing personalized cognitive evaluation in the behavioral evaluation process.

Research on driving visual comfort of two‐lane mountainous road based on traffic safety evaluation

AbstractIn order to obtain the quantitative relationship between multisource data from road landscape and driving visual comfort in two‐lane mountainous road, we collected the driver's eye movement data and road environment data through real vehicle tests. The threshold segmentation method and the target landscape area ratio method are used to process the visual image, and the spatial enclosure degree is used to express the driver's sense of spatial closure. In addition, an HSV color model is established to characterize the driver's visual perception of the mountain highway landscape environment. Combining the target landscape area ratio of road landscape with the amount of color information, the calculation method of road landscape information is obtained. According to the characteristics of normal distribution of pupil area ratio, five grades of driver's visual comfort level are proposed, and the regression relationship between comfort level and landscape information is established. The study found that there is a significant negative correlation between the amount of road landscape information and the driver's visual comfort. When the amount of road landscape information is less than 0.338, the driving comfort is higher, which is conducive to driving safety. However, when the amount of landscape information in the road area exceeds 0.644, the driving comfort decreases significantly, which is detrimental to driving safety.

The Influence of Managerial, Digital, Relational and Behavioural Skills on the Perception of Barriers and Drivers of Implementing Digital Intelligent and Sustainable Logistics

The Influence of Managerial, Digital, Relational and Behavioural Skills on the Perception of Barriers and Drivers of Implementing Digital Intelligent and Sustainable Logistics

Understanding energy efficiency decisions in the building sector – A survey of barriers and drivers in Sweden

A sustainable building sector with a more energy-efficient and decarbonized building stock is important for mitigating climate change. This paper contributes to knowledge on how to increase energy efficiency investments by presenting a nationwide survey on the perception of barriers and drivers for energy efficiency among 216 professionals in the Swedish building sector. This study explores economic, behavioral, and organizational conditions and analyzes the conventional dependencies on (1) type of ownership and (2) size of the organization, but also adds analysis on (3) degree of urbanization, (4) climate zones and (5) profession. Together these dependencies enhance a custom design of policies and measures. The findings show that hidden costs and bounded rationality were prominent barriers due to problems to acquire and analyze information, which needs to be addressed. In addition to the economic driver to reduce cost, several behavioral and organizational drivers were emphasized. There were distinct economic differences depending on the type of ownership and size of the organizations. Well-developed organizational structures were important factors for energy efficiency, which policies and measures should address. Differences were seen between organizations operating in rural areas and more densely populated areas. An improved indoor climate was important in northern climate zones. • Hidden costs and bounded rationality are the main barriers. • The perception of lack of capital is dependent on the type of ownership. • Dependencies found regarding degree of urbanization, climate zones, and professions. • Challenges among organizations in less populated areas, and in the north of Sweden. • Widely diverse perceptions among different professions.

Using social media to understand challenges faced by US urban parcel delivery drivers: Reports from the curb

While several studies have begun to quantify the problems presented by curb conflicts surrounding delivery vehicles, especially unauthorized parking behavior, fewer have specifically examined these issues through the lens of driver behavior. To gain on-the-ground insight into competition for curb space, what issues drivers face, and the circumstances that inform their parking choices and related behaviors, we use data from Reddit to examine US driver perceptions and behavior, posing the following questions: What are some key challenges parcel delivery drivers encounter when delivering in urban areas? What strategies do drivers employ when parking their vehicles to make deliveries? What reasons do drivers cite for engaging in unauthorized or questionable parking practices?We find that parking is among the largest challenges drivers face while delivering in urban areas, largely because parking difficulties extend the time required to complete many routes. Drivers in our sample preferred to park in authorized spaces, but generally accepted the practice of unauthorized parking to complete their routes. Often, they did so due to lack of available parking, but also for safety and/or expedience. Moreover, drivers reported that parking enforcement personnel rarely issued tickets or other reprimands, acknowledging that for delivery vehicles, unauthorized parking is often necessary. Finally, drivers also described concerns surrounding interactions with other road users while making deliveries, especially in terms of conflict and safety. Curb management policies and freight providers’ practices alike will need to adapt in the face of the changing landscape of the curb.

An innovative therapeutic educational program to support older drivers with cognitive disorders: Description of a randomized controlled trial study protocol.

Older drivers face the prospect of having to adjust their driving habits because of health problems, which can include neurocognitive disorders. Self-awareness of driving difficulties and the interaction between individual with neurocognitive disorders and natural caregiver seem to be important levers for the implementation of adaptation strategies and for the subsequent voluntary cessation of driving when the cognitive disorders become too severe. This study aims to evaluate an educational program for patient/natural caregiver dyads who wish to implement self-regulation strategies in driving activity, and to improve self-awareness of driving ability. The ACCOMPAGNE program is based on seven group workshops, which target the dyad. The workshops deal with the impact of cognitive, sensory and iatrogenic disorders on driving. They tackle questions about responsibility, and about autonomy and social life. They also provide alternative solutions aimed at maintaining outward-looking activities even if driving is reduced or stopped. A randomized controlled trial is planned to evaluate the effectiveness of the program 2 months and 6 months after inclusion, and to compare this to the effectiveness of conventional approaches. The main outcome of this trial (i.e., the implementation of self-regulated driving strategies), will be measured based on scores on the “Current Self-Regulatory Practices” subscale of the Driver Perception and Practices Questionnaire. The Driving Habits Questionnaire will be used to measure secondary outcomes (indicators of driving changes; indicators of changes in mood, quality of life and caregiver burden; and self-awareness of driving abilities). Indicators will be collected for both patients and natural caregivers. This cognitive, social and psychological program should allow older individuals with cognitive disorders to drive more safely, and help to maintain the quality of life and mood of both patient and natural caregiver despite driving limitations. The patient's care path would be optimized, as he/she would become an actor in the process of giving up driving, which will, most certainly, be needed at some point in the progress of neurocognitive disorders. This process ranges from becoming aware of driving difficulties, to implementing self-regulation strategies, through to complete cessation of driving when necessary.Clinical trial registration numberNCT04493957.

Road safety perception and behaviour of young drivers: Case study of Montenegro

The large number of road fatalities and injured represents a serious and challenging global problem. Road users’ personalities, attitudes and behaviour can influence how individuals, especially youngsters, react to a particular driving situation. Young drivers are among the riskiest road users, particularly during the first few months of independent driving. Although they represent only a small percentage of licensed drivers, they are more likely to be involved in traffic accidents with fatalities and injuries than the more experienced ones. The main goal of this paper is to identify differences in perception and behaviour of youngsters compared to other drivers in Montenegro.

An Analysis of Driver Gaze Behaviour at Roundabouts

Determining driver situational awareness is one of the most difficult tasks in driver performance profiling. Perception, being the first level of driver situational awareness, is perhaps the only objectively quantifiable factor for driver inattention detection. In the context of this paper, driver perception is defined as their ability to understand their operating environment and peripheral contextual information. One of the most reliable means of determining driver perception is through eye tracking and gaze concentration. In this study, a set of carefully chosen in-vehicle gaze targets are used to determine driver gaze concentration on/off the road. The time drivers spend looking at these predefined gaze targets has been used to characterise driver visual behaviour at roundabouts during normal driving. In total, 24 drivers completed a 22 km route, including two 5-exit two-lane roundabouts in urban and suburban traffic. This study shows that on the approach to roundabouts, driver gaze direction and gaze concentration was often diverted away from the direction of travel of the vehicle and for some drivers it took a significant amount of time to return their gaze towards the direction of travel of the vehicle. The study is based on the premise that a driver not looking at key regions in a scene cannot perceive the contents of those regions with sufficient detail for safe driving. It is not possible to determine a driver’s level of understanding of a scene, unless the parameters of the scene as well as the driver’s response is determined in real time.

A study of the factors affecting driving risk perception using the Bivariate Ordered Probit model

This paper aims to examine the key factors influencing driving risk perception in Iran. We conducted separate surveys for two groups of Iranian drivers, namely passenger car drivers and truck drivers. In order to assess driving risk perception, respondents were asked what they think about their Probability of Having a Road Accident (PHRA) and if they eventually have an accident as a driver, what they think about the Probability of it being Fatal or causing Severe Injury (PFSI). A Bivariate Ordered Probit model, which considers the possible correlation between PHRA and PFSI, was developed to explain the observed driving risk perception using type of vehicle, driving experience, socio-demographic information, and driving behaviour. According to the results, vehicle type, vehicle age, driving experience, sleep quality, at-fault accidents over the past three years, vehicles safety-related equipment, and education level have significant effects on driving risk perception (p-value < 0.05). In addition, this paper compares the driving risk perception of truck and passenger car drivers. The results show that truck drivers have a higher perception of PHRA and PFSI compared with passenger car drivers (p-value < 0.05). The results may convince policy-makers to consider the characteristics of the two categories of drivers when designing regulations.

Influence of Intersection Density on Risk Perception of Drivers in Rural Roadways: A Driving Simulator Study

With the aim of maintaining a decent level of accessibility, the presence of intersections, often in high numbers, is one of the typical features of rural roads. However, evidence from literature shows that increasing intersection density increases the risk of accidents. Accident analysis literature regarding intersection density primarily consists of accident prediction models which are a useful tool for measuring safety performance of roads, but the literature is lacking in terms of evaluation of driver behavior using direct measurements of driver performance. This study focuses on the influence of intersection density on the risk perception of drivers through experiments carried out with a driving simulator. A virtual driving environment of a rural roadway was constructed. The road consisted of segments featuring extra-urban and village driving environments with varying intersection density level. Participants were recruited to drive through this virtual driving environment. Various driver performance measures such as vehicle speed and brake and gas pedal usage were collected from the experiment and then processed for further analysis. Results indicate an increase in driver’s perceived risk when the intersection density increased, according with the findings from the accident prediction modeling literature. However, at the same time, this driving simulator study revealed some interesting insights about oscillating perceived risk among drivers in the case of mid-level intersection separation distances. Beyond the accident research domain, findings from this study can also be useful for engineers and transportation agencies associated with access management to make more informed decisions.

Is the Future of Green Enterprise Really Green? Assessment of Stakeholders’ Awareness on Green Enterprise

To ensure success of green enterprise, educating individuals on “greening” their personal and work activities would contribute to the control of environmental harm. While the future of green enterprise seems unsure, measuring the stakeholders’ awareness is the primary step. As such, this study aimed to assess the awareness of the tricycle drivers in San Pablo City, Laguna, Philippines on green enterprise. Through a survey involving 150 public utility vehicle (PUV) drivers as study participants, a researcher-made survey questionnaire measured the awareness on general concepts as well as air emission control and perception on greening activities on transport service. The study also determined whether the awareness on green enterprise influenced perception on green practices and whether significant difference existed in the awareness and perception of the PUV drivers according to profile factors. The study findings revealed that the tricycle drivers in San Pablo City, Laguna are highly aware of the meaning, benefits, and activities of green enterprise. Moreover, the results showed the agreement on the green practices applicable to the public transport drivers. Statistical tests found that awareness on green enterprise significantly influenced perception on green practices while there was no significant difference on the participants’ awareness on green enterprise when grouped according to profile factors except civil status. While the study findings provide room for awareness campaign programs, there is a necessity to put concepts and theory into practice. Various stakeholders may be aware of the green enterprise but their practices prove otherwise.

Design and evaluation of cooperative human–machine interface for changing lanes in conditional driving automation

This study analyzes the impact of cooperative human–machine interface designs on drivers’ trust in and interaction with automated driving systems (ADSs) during lane changes on highways. While drivers’ inappropriate trust in ADSs can affect their behavior toward the system, capability to detect inadequate system performance, and perception of surrounding traffic disturbances, their engagement in the automated process can improve their comprehension of the system and traffic conditions, which is necessary for the safe practice of automated driving. Forty drivers practiced conditional driving automation in a driving simulator and encountered traffic congestion on the main lane of a two-lane highway. Four ADS designs were proposed to bypass the congestion. ADS-1 detects the congestion and synchronizes the speed accordingly. ADS-2 requests the driver to resume manual control and overtake the congestion. ADS-3 requests the driver to push a button to let the system overtakes the congestion automatically. ADS-4 overtakes the congestion automatically after informing the driver, while the driver can cancel it by pushing a button within 6 s. In all these conditions, driver intervention was optional. Although the drivers preferred and trusted ADS-1 and ADS-2 more than ADS-3 and ADS-4, the results indicate significant improvements in the driving performance and system usage under ADS-3 and ADS-4. Driving with ADS-3 improved drivers’ engagement and reduced the requirement for control transfer compared with other systems. However, the time headway between the subject and adjacent vehicles indicated that lane changes were more critical under ADS-3 and ADS-4 than ADS-1 and ADS-2. Such deficiency of alignment between driver perception and safe behaviors has implications for the design of future studies and systems that need to balance satisfaction and safety. These observations are likely to improve driver interaction with automated vehicles.

Age Differences in Hazard Perception of Drivers: The Roles of Emotion.

With the increasingly powerful functions of vehicle-mounted entertainment facilities, people (especially young drivers) like to listen to music while driving to render different atmospheres and emotions. However, emotions are important factors affecting drivers’ decisions, behavior and may reduce drivers’ hazard perception (HP), even promote dangerous driving behaviors of drivers. The purpose of this study is to explore the young and elderly drivers in assessing the HP difference under different emotional states. We conducted a 3 × 2 mixed experimental design with emotion as a within-participants variable and age as a between-participants factor. A sample of 14 young drivers (mean age = 22.21, SD = 1.05) and 13 elderly drivers (mean age = 54.08, SD = 2.72) completed the HP self-assessment of road traffic warning signs under negative emotion, neutral emotion, and positive emotion, randomly. The results showed that the young had the highest self-assessment HP under the negative emotion arousal condition, while the old had the highest self-assessment HP under the positive emotion arousal condition. In addition, When both groups were in a positive arousal state, the older group perceived more hazards than the young group. The results could help designers create driving emotions suitable for different driver groups, thus improving their perception of hazards and reducing risky driving.

Designing a Driver’s Hazard Perception Test Based on the Neural Brain Images Analysis (fMRI)

Background: Studies show that weakness in hazard perception is a major cause of traffic accidents, leading to high consequences. Objectives: This study aimed to design a valid and reliable driver’s Hazard Perception Test (HPT) based on neural imaging, reaction time, and miss rate in two groups of experienced and inexperienced drivers. Methods: Different roads, including urban, intercity, and rural, were filmed from drivers’ visual angles to examine the real road conditions. All videos were screened according to some quality factors. Then, hazard onset was determined for screened videos. The validity of the test was performed in three steps. Miss rates and reaction times to hazardous situations were measured. In the second step, 35 selected videos were broadcasted to 16 experienced and 16 novice drivers on a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Finally, using 18 videos with statistically significant differences in neuro-cerebral neuronal activity, miss rate and reaction time were picked up for driver’s HPT. Results: The mean differences in reaction time, miss rate, and active neurons in the task of perceiving hazards in two groups of drivers were equal to 1.58 seconds, 29.55%, and 5248 neurons, respectively. There was a significant correlation between active neurons and miss rate (r = 0.556, P &lt; 0.001). Eventually, the 18-videos of the valid test became HPT software. Conclusions: Application of this valid test is suggested for assessing the hazard perception of drivers, particularly those who are responsible for transporting staff and goods in the studied country.

Driver perceptions on taxi-sharing and dynamic pricing in taxi services: Evidence from Athens, Greece

The taxi industry has changed dramatically during the last decade, as ride-sourcing applications, ride-sharing and alternative pricing schemes have emerged, either as complementing or competitive services and strategies. After some years of familiarity with such trends, it is interesting to explore where the taxi industry stands with respect to possible service innovations. This paper explores behavioral patterns of drivers, focusing on issues such as their preferred way of conducting business, and their views on introducing taxi-sharing and dynamic pricing. Data collected from a face-to-face questionnaire survey in Athens, Greece are exploited, and appropriate econometric models are developed for the purposes of the study. The analysis shows that young and/or educated drivers, as well as those who are familiar with new technologies are more willing to accept innovations in taxi services. Results from a stated choice experiment show that on average 3.5 euros is the extra charge that the taxi market would accept to offer a taxi-sharing service. However, results reveal that the value of taxi-sharing varies across different groups of drivers. Overall, findings indicate that in the years to come, competition by other services, (e.g. ridesharing) will force the taxi industry to adopt new models of operation and pricing.

Beyond gaze fixation: Modeling peripheral vision in relation to speed, Tesla Autopilot, cognitive load, and age in highway driving

ObjectiveThe study aims to model driver perception across the visual field in dynamic, real-world highway driving. BackgroundPeripheral vision acquires information across the visual field and guides a driver’s information search. Studies in naturalistic settings are lacking however, with most research having been conducted in controlled simulation environments with limited eccentricities and driving dynamics. MethodsWe analyzed data from 24 participants who drove a Tesla Model S with Autopilot on the highway. While driving, participants completed the peripheral detection task (PDT) using LEDs and the N-back task to generate cognitive load. The I-DT (identification by dispersion threshold) algorithm sampled naturalistic gaze fixations during PDTs to cover a broader and continuous spectrum of eccentricity. A generalized Bayesian regression model predicted LED detection probability during the PDT—as a surrogate for peripheral vision—in relation to eccentricity, vehicle speed, driving mode, cognitive load, and age. ResultsThe model predicted that LED detection probability was high and stable through near-peripheral vision but it declined rapidly beyond 20°-30° eccentricity, showing a narrower useful field over a broader visual field (maximum 70°) during highway driving. Reduced speed (while following another vehicle), cognitive load, and older age were the main factors that degraded the mid-peripheral vision (20°-50°), while using Autopilot had little effect. ConclusionsDrivers can reliably detect objects through near-peripheral vision, but their peripheral detection degrades gradually due to further eccentricity, foveal demand during low-speed vehicle following, cognitive load, and age. ApplicationsThe findings encourage the development of further multivariate computational models to estimate peripheral vision and assess driver situation awareness for crash prevention.