Perceived Task Difficulty Research Articles

Instructors' expressive nonverbal behavior hinders learning when learners' prior knowledge is low.

This study investigated the influence of instructors’ expressive nonverbal behavior and nonexpressive nonverbal behavior in video lectures on students’ learning performance and affective experience. We conducted two rounds of experiments using the same materials and procedures, the only difference being the participants. In each round of experiments, participants were randomly assigned to expressive condition or nonexpressive condition. 227 rural primary school sixth-graders took part in experiment 1, participants in expressive condition had better affective experiences and perceived tasks as less difficult, but had lower learning performance than participants in nonexpressive condition. 175 sixth-graders from urban primary schools participated in experiment 2. The results showed that instructors’ expressive nonverbal behavior also improved students’ affective experience and reduced students’ perception of task difficulty, but there was no significant difference in learning performance between the two groups. Comparing the pretest scores of students in the two experiments, it was found that the pretest scores of participants in experiment 2 were higher than those in experiment 1. Overall, instructors’ expressive nonverbal behavior can improve students’ affective experience and reduce their perception of task difficulty. However, when students’ prior knowledge is relatively low, instructors’ expressive nonverbal behavior hinders students’ learning performance. We suggest that teachers adopt expressive nonverbal behavior when lecturing because it is beneficial to maintain students’ long-term interest in learning. However, it should be noted that the difficulty of learning material should be determined by students’ prior knowledge.

The relationship between poststimulus pause, learner proficiency, and working memory in an Elicited Imitation Task

AbstractThe Elicited Imitation Task (EIT) is a popular technique for efficiently measuring global proficiency in multiple languages, and accumulated evidence indicates high reliability and strong relationships with other proficiency measures. Nevertheless, several dimensions of EIT design remain open to investigation, including the assumption that a pause is required in between the aural stimulus and oral response, to ensure processing of the input and prevent so-called parroting. This study investigated the relationship between three poststimulus pause conditions, learners’ proficiency and working memory, and their EIT scores as well as their perceptions of task difficulty, mental effort, focus, and interest. Findings indicated no differences in performances or perceptions between the 0-second pause, 2-second pause, and 5-second pause conditions, and a weak relationship between EIT performance and working memory. Across all conditions, the EIT distinguished consistently among proficiency levels, correlated strongly with a criterion proficiency measure, and produced remarkably reliable scores.

Investigating Affective Responses to Remotely Delivered "At Home" Low Volume High Intensity Interval Exercise: A Non-Randomized Parallel Group Feasibility Study.

BackgroundLow volume-high intensity interval exercise (LV-HIIE) has gained interest, due to its efficiency in invoking health and fitness benefits. However, little research has studied “at home” feasibility or effects of LV-HIIE. This study aimed to demonstrate that remote “at-home” LV-HIIE research is possible and to investigate if affective responses to the LV-HIIE protocol, subsequent intentions, and self-efficacy to repeat were related to self-reported tolerance of the intensity of exercise.MethodsUsing self-reported tolerance of the intensity of exercise, 41 healthy, physically active participants (25 female and 16 male; age 21.3 ± 1.0 years, body mass index 23.0 ± 2.9 kg.m2) were divided into low tolerance (LT, n = 14), middle tolerance (MT, n = 15), and high tolerance (HT, n = 12) groups. Participants completed a 20-min LV-HIIE circuit training video [2 × (10 ×30 s work, 15 s rest)] at home. Participants reported ratings of perceived exertion, affective valence, and perceived activation at baseline, during the protocol, immediately post-protocol, and during the cool down. 20-min after completion, respondents answered questions on exercise task self-efficacy and intentions to repeat LV-HIIE.ResultsThe study recruited n = 65 individuals, of whom n = 50 passed screening. Ultimately n = 41 (82%) completed the exercise protocol and data collection. Ratings of perceived exertion were not significantly different between groups (p = 0.56), indicating similar perceptions of task difficulty. There was no significant effect of tolerance on affective valence (p = 0.36) or felt arousal (p = 0.06). There was evidence of high individual variability in affective responses within and between participants. Subsequent intentions and self-efficacy to repeat the exercise protocol did not seem to be related to affective valence during or after the protocol.DiscussionRecruitment and data collection indicated that research into “at home” LV-HIIE is possible. High individual differences in affective responses suggest that LV-HEII may be appropriate for some but not all as an exercise option. Assessing self-reported tolerance of intensity of exercise may not appropriately identify whether or not LV-HIIE will be suitable for an individual.

With No Attention Specifically Directed to It, Rhythmic Sound Does Not Automatically Facilitate Visual Task Performance.

In a century where humans and machines—powered by artificial intelligence or not—increasingly work together, it is of interest to understand human processing of multi-sensory stimuli in relation to attention and working memory. This paper explores whether and when supporting visual information with rhythmic auditory stimuli can optimize multi-sensory information processing. In turn, this can make the interaction between humans or between machines and humans more engaging, rewarding and activating. For this purpose a novel working memory paradigm was developed where participants are presented with a series of five target digits randomly interchanged with five distractor digits. Their goal is to remember the target digits and recall them orally. Depending on the condition support is provided by audio and/or rhythm. It is expected that the sound will lead to a better performance. It is also expected that this effect of sound is different in case of rhythmic and non-rhythmic sound. Last but not least, some variability is expected across participants. To make correct conclusions, the data of the experiment was statistically analyzed in a classic way, but also predictive models were developed in order to predict outcomes based on a range of input variables related to the experiment and the participant. The effect of auditory support could be confirmed, but no difference was observed between rhythmic and non-rhythmic sounds. Overall performance was indeed affected by individual differences, such as visual dominance or perceived task difficulty. Surprisingly a music education did not significantly affect the performance and even tended toward a negative effect. To better understand the underlying processes of attention, also brain activation data, e.g., by means of electroencephalography (EEG), should be recorded. This approach can be subject to a future work.

Differential relationships between mathematics self-efficacy and national test performance according to perceived task difficulty

ABSTRACT We explore the effect of students’ perceived task difficulty on the mathematics self-efficacy – performance relationship. Specifically, we expand on previous reciprocal effects studies through including students’ self-efficacy for different levels of task difficulty in an empirical investigation. We examined students’ self-efficacy for easy, medium difficulty, and hard tasks and performance on a national mathematics test in a longitudinal study of 95 Norwegian students from grade 8 to grade 9. We found differential relationships between self-efficacy for different levels of task difficulty and national test performance. In support of the ‘skill development’ model, grade 8 national test performance predicted grade 9 self-efficacy for medium and hard, but not easy, tasks. While mastery experiences are likely to arise more easily on easier tasks, such experiences are likely to matter more on harder tasks. Our findings highlight the importance of supporting students’ engagement with challenging tasks to strengthen both their performance and self-efficacy.

The interdependency of perceived task difficulty and the choice effect when learning with multimedia materials.

The interdependency of perceived task difficulty and the choice effect when learning with multimedia materials.

Note-taking effort in video remote interpreting: effects of source speech difficulty and interpreter work experience

ABSTRACT This paper reports on an investigation of the interactions between source speech difficulty, interpreters’ work experience and their note-taking behaviour in video remote interpreting. 20 professional interpreters and 29 student interpreters consecutively interpreted two easy segments and two difficult segments from English (L2) to Chinese (L1), with their eye and pen movements being registered by a Tobii eye-tracker and a Wacom digital pen. The results show that: (1) an increase of perceived interpreting difficulty led to a decrease in the overt visual attention and physical effort invested in note-taking, and a longer time to make note-taking decisions; (2) although the professionals and students reported a similar level of interpreting difficulty, the professionals devoted more overt visual attention and physical effort to completing the note-taking activity in interpreting than the students; and (3) the cognitive effort of note-taking was not affected by changes in source speech difficulty or interpreter work experience. These findings indicate that: (1) interpreting experience accumulation does not entail reductions in task-difficulty perception or the cognitive effort of note-taking but increases the amount of effort interpreters devote to note-taking; and (2) increased task difficulty affects time management during note-taking but not the cognitive effort of note-taking.

Emotional Design in Concept Maps – No Support but Also No Burden

A concept map is a powerful method that promotes meaningful learning and is highly recommended for use in biology classes. According to multimedia research, the effectiveness of concept maps could be improved by incorporating pictorial elements. Apart from using realistic images, a new field of research claims that specific design manipulations, including human-like features with appealing colors (emotional design), influence learners’ affective state and improve learning. A positive affective state is assumed to evoke emotions and provoke deeper cognitive processing, which increases the cognitive resources available for a task. We conducted two experiments with a total of N = 249 junior high school students, comparing the effect of concept maps with emotional design illustrations (emotional design), with non-emotional design illustrations (neutral design), and without illustrations (control design). Experiment 1 examined the influence of these designs on students’ perceived affective state, perceived cognitive load (extraneous, intrinsic, and germane load), perceived task difficulty, and learning performance (n = 202), experiment 2 focused on the perceived affective state of the students (n = 47). We found that emotional design led to a significant decrease in perceived task difficulty, but we neither found an effect on learning performance nor the positive affective state. Learning with pictorial concept maps (in emotional or neutral design) reduced the negative affect compared to learning with control concept maps. Other than expected, the neutral design led to reduced perceived extraneous and intrinsic cognitive load. Consequently, in terms of learning, emotional design in concept maps did not hamper learning but did not foster it either.

Meta-analyzing enhanced expectancies on motor learning: positive effects but methodological concerns

ABSTRACT The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning predicts enhanced expectancies facilitate learning. This meta-analysis investigated this prediction by quantifying effect sizes from studies manipulating feedback after good trials, comparative feedback, perceived task difficulty, conceptions of ability, self-modeling, or extrinsic rewards, and assessing learning. After searching databases, 48 studies met inclusion criteria for quantitative analysis. Fifty-six effect sizes were calculated from performance differences between enhanced expectancies and neutral/diminished expectancies groups at delayed retention tests. Results revealed a Hedges’ g = 0.54 (95% CI [0.38, 0.69]) that may be overestimated due to small-study effects and underpowered studies. Moderator analyses revealed feedback after good trials, comparative feedback, perceived task difficulty, and conceptions of ability manipulations significantly improved learning. Few studies used other manipulations, precluding reliable estimates of their effects. Further, significant effects of enhanced expectancies were shown for children/adolescents, young adults, and older adults. Few studies examined special populations, preventing a reliable effect estimate. Finally, the effect of enhanced expectancies on learning was not affected by type of comparison group (neutral/diminished expectancies). Findings suggest enhanced expectancies may facilitate motor learning, consistent with OPTIMAL theory, but pre-registered/registered reports and more powerful studies should be conducted to confirm the effect and estimate its size more accurately.

Factors influence the choice of Word-of-Mouth recommendation sources in online purchase decisions: with special reference to the tourism and hospitality industry in Sri Lanka

Purpose: Word-of-Mouth is a strong communication tool which is perceived as a credible source by consumers. With the internet penetration now WOM is occurring in e-platforms such as blogs, social network sites etc. This has given birth to electronic Word-of-Mouth or e-WOM. Though WOM may occur from various recommendation sources based on various factors the choice of the WOM recommendation source may vary. The research focuses on three objectives. They are to identify the relationship between the perceived task difficulty and the tie-strength of the recommendation source when making an online purchase decision, to identify the relationship between consumer knowledge and perceived task difficulty and to identify the relationship between internet experience and perceived task difficulty. Design/methodology/approach: Data was collected through a questionnaire. A sample of 140 respondents was used to collect information and convenience sampling method was used. Findings: Results revealed that consumers tend to reach out to both strong ties and weak ties irrespective of the perceived task difficulty. Further, as consumer subjective knowledge and internet experience increases perceived task difficulty reduces. Originality: Although studies have been conducted regarding WOM, no studies have been conducted to understand the role of recommendation sources when making an online purchase decision in the hospitality and tourism industry in the Sri Lankan context. Implications: Thus word -of -mouth communication should be considered as a part of the communication mix and organizations in the tourism and hospitality industry should focus on using opinion leaders to promote products. Keywords: WOM, eWOM, Perceived Task Difficulty, Internet Experience, Recommendation Sources

Role of EFL Learners’ Perceptions of Task Difficulty in Complexity, Accuracy and Fluency: An Exploratory Case Study

This paper presents an investigation conducted in a public university in central Mexico into the possible influence of learners’ perceptions of task difficulty (TD) on levels of complexity, accuracy and fluency (CAF) during the performance of three tasks (personal information, narrative and decision-making tasks). Firstly, four learner pairs performed the three tasks, and their levels of CAF were measured. Secondly, the participants were interviewed retrospectively about which tasks they perceived as difficult and their reasons for such perceived difficulty. In combining the quantitative and qualitative analyses, the data reveal that task difficulty increases when a task is perceived not to be familiar by the learner. The relationship between task difficulty and familiarity also appears to influence the levels of CAF, promoting high levels of fluency and accuracy when the task is perceived by the learner as easy and familiar. The findings of this study provide support for a cognitive approach to task-based language learning and put forward the need to include learners’ perceptions of TD as a variable to investigate the relationship between tasks and the CAF dimensions.

Exploring Usability Issues of a Smartphone-Based Physician-to-Physician Teleconsultation App in an Orthopedic Clinic: Mixed Methods Study.

BackgroundPhysician-to-physician teleconsultation has increasingly played an essential role in delivering optimum health care services, particularly in orthopedic practice. In this study, the usability of a smartphone app for teleconsultation among orthopedic specialists was investigated to explore issues informing further recommendations for improvement in the following iterations.ObjectiveThis study aimed to explore usability issues emerging from users’ interactions with MEDIC app, a smartphone-based patient-centered physician-to-physician teleconsultation system.MethodsFive attending physicians in the Department of Orthopedics in a large medical school in Bangkok, Thailand, were recruited and asked to perform 5 evaluation tasks, namely, group formation, patient registration, clinical data capturing, case record form creation, and teleconsultation. In addition, one expert user was recruited as the control participant. Think aloud was adopted while performing the tasks. Semistructured interviews were conducted after each task and prior to the exit. Quantitative and qualitative measures were used to identify usability issues in 7 domains based on the People At the Centre of Mobile Application Development model: effectiveness, efficiency, satisfaction, learnability, memorability, error, and cognitive load.ResultsSeveral measures indicate various aspects of usability of the app, including completion rates, time to completion, number of clicks, number of screens, errors, incidents where participants were unable to perform tasks, which had previously been completed, and perceived task difficulty. Major and critical usability issues based on participant feedback were rooted from the limitation of screen size and resolution. Errors in data input (eg, typing errors, miscalculation), action failures, and misinterpretation of data (ie, radiography) were the most critical and common issues found in this study. A few participants did not complete the assigned tasks mostly owing to the navigation design and misreading/misunderstanding icons. However, the novice users were quite positive that they would be able to become familiar with the app in a short period of time.ConclusionsThe usability issues in physician-to-physician teleconsultation systems in smartphones, in general, are derived from the limitations of smartphones and their operating systems. Although some recommendations were devised to handle these usability issues, usability evaluation for additional development should still be further investigated.

Peer assessment in EFL teacher preparation: A longitudinal study of student perception

Peer assessment has been found to have many advantages in learning particularly when viewing it through a socio-cultural lens. This study explored peer assessment across language teacher education coursework, following 15 teacher candidates through three semesters of TEFL coursework. This longitudinal approach is rare with peer assessment research. Surveys and interviews were collected to understand the students’ perception of peer assessment, including how it contributed to their learning and its summative use. Results indicated that repeatedly practicing peer assessment in coursework led to increased positive perception about its usefulness in learning and enhanced trust in peers as qualified assessors, but with a complex interaction of various factors in students’ perception, such as perceived task difficulty, interpersonal relationships, mode of feedback, etc. The participants’ hesitant attitudes about summative use of peer assessment (PA) was interpreted as largely based on their socio-culturally shaped perspectives of authority and academic achievement. Implications for using peer assessment in language teacher education are offered.

Assessment of Perceived Task Difficulty Across Multiple Search Conditions

Assessment of Perceived Task Difficulty Across Multiple Search Conditions

Dampening Effects of Perceived Teacher Enthusiasm on Class-Related Boredom in College Students: Longitudinal Mediation Effects of Perceived Task Value.

This study aims to explore the longitudinal mediation effects of college students’ perceived task value (PTV) between perceived teacher enthusiasm (PTE) and class-related boredom (CB). We conducted a longitudinal survey among college students from five colleges at the second (T1), sixth (T2), tenth (T3), and fourteenth week (T4) in a semester, and overall 1,371 students completed all the measurements. In the survey, a battery of questionnaires was used to measure the students’ PTE, perception of task difficulty, perception of task value, and CB. At T1, boredom proneness was measured as a control variable. Analysis of the longitudinal data showed that after controlling for the effects of boredom proneness and perceived task difficulty, students’ PTE was a significant predictor of CB, and students’ PTV played a significant mediating role in this causation relationship. The study supported the importance of the control-value theory in explaining the mitigating effect of students’ PTE on CB, especially highlighting the role of PTV.

The Effects of Exercise Difficulty and Time-of-Day on the Perception of the Task and Soccer Performance in Child Soccer Players.

In soccer, accurate kicking skills are important determinants of successful performance. A successful kick must meet several criteria, including speed, accuracy, and timing. In fact, players who are able to kick the ball more accurately under various difficulties, such as time pressure, space constraints, the opponent’s pressure, and the distance between the kicking point and the goal, have a clear advantage during soccer games. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of exercise difficulty and time-of-day on perceived task difficulty and kicking performance. Accordingly, 32 boys (age: 11 ± 0.7 years; height: 1.45 ± 0.07 m; body-mass: 38.9 ± 7.8 kg) performed shooting accuracy tests under two difficulty levels (distance (long-distance (LD) vs. short-distance (SD)) and time pressure (Without-time-pressure (WTP) vs. With-time-pressure (TP)) at 08:00 h and 17:00 h. Absolute-error, variable-error, and constant-error were evaluated during the kicking tasks, in addition to ball velocity and shooting quality. Moreover, rating-of-perceived-exertion score (RPE), feeling-scale (FS), and perceived difficulty were completed immediately at the end of each test. The results showed that shooting quality was not affected by the time-of-day, but it was better in WTP vs. TP (p < 0.05), and in SD vs. LD (p < 0.05), respectively. Higher values for FS and lower values for RPE were observed in the morning compared to the afternoon (p < 0.05) and in WTP vs. TP (p < 0.05). In conclusion, specific soccer skills of boys were not time-of-day dependent, but they may be associated with time pressure and task difficulty.

Motor Imagery of Walking in People Living with and without Multiple Sclerosis: A Cross-Sectional Comparison of Mental Chronometry.

Motor imagery represents the ability to simulate anticipated movements mentally prior to their actual execution and has been proposed as a tool to assess both individuals’ perception of task difficulty as well as their perception of their own abilities. People with multiple sclerosis (pwMS) often present with motor and cognitive dysfunction, which may negatively affect motor imagery. In this cross-sectional study, we explored differences in motor imagery of walking performance between pwMS (n = 20, age = 57.1 (SD = 8.6) years, 55% female) and age- and sex-matched healthy controls (n = 20, age = 58.1 (SD = 7.0) years, 60% female). Participants underwent mental chronometry assessments, a subset of motor imagery, which evaluated the difference between imagined and actual walking times across four walking tasks of increasing difficulty (i.e., large/narrow-width walkway with/without obstacles). Raw and absolute mental chronometry (A-MC) measures were recorded in single- (ST) and dual-task (DT) conditions. In ST conditions, pwMS had higher A-MC scores across all walking conditions (p ≤ 0.031, η2 ≥ 0.119), indicating lower motor imagery ability compared to healthy controls. During DT, all participants tended to underestimate their walking ability (3.38 ± 6.72 to 5.63 ± 9.17 s). However, after physical practice, pwMS were less able to adjust their imagined walking performance compared to healthy controls. In pwMS, A-MC scores were correlated with measures of balance confidence (ρ = −0.629, p < 0.01) and the self-reported expanded disability status scale (ρ = 0.747, p < 0.01). While the current study revealed that pwMS have lower motor imagery of walking performance compared to healthy individuals, further work is necessary to examine how the disassociation between mental chronometry and actual performance relates to quality of life and well-being.

Peer review in team-based learning: influencing feedback literacy

BackgroundPeer review in Team-based learning (TBL) exists for three key reasons: to promote reflection on individual behaviours; provide opportunities to develop professional skills; and prevent ‘free riders’ who fail to contribute effectively to team discussions. A well-developed process that engages students is needed. However, evidence suggests it remains a difficult task to effectively incorporate into TBL. The purpose of this study was to assess medical students’ ability to provide written feedback to their peers in TBL, and to explore students’ perception of the process, using the conceptual framework of Biggs ‘3P model’.MethodsYear 2 students (n = 255) participated in peer review twice during 2019. We evaluated the quality of feedback using a theoretically derived rubric, and undertook a qualitative analysis of focus group data to seek explanations for feedback behaviors.ResultsStudents demonstrated reasonable ability to provide positive feedback, but were less prepared to identify areas for improvement. Their ability did not improve over time, and was influenced by the perceived task difficulty; social discomfort; and sense of responsibility in providing written feedback.Conclusions To increase student engagement, we require a transparent process that incorporates verbal feedback and team discussion, with monitoring of outcomes by faculty and adequate training.

Examining students' self-efficacy and perceptions of task difficulty in learning from multiple texts

We examine students' ratings of task difficulty and associate these with self-efficacy and objective and subjective measures of task performance, within the context of learning from multiple texts. Participants were asked to report their self-efficacy for multiple text task completion and then to compose an argument about a controversial topic (i.e., the U.S. adopting a universal basic income). Students were asked to rate and justify their perceptions of task difficulty following multiple text task completion. While self-efficacy was found to be associated both with students' ratings of task difficulty and with measures of subjective task performance, objective task performance was found to only be associated with effort expenditure, as measured by the total time that students devoted to text access. Implications for future research are discussed.

Understanding what determines university students’ behavioral engagement in a group-based flipped learning context

Flipped learning emphasizes substantial peer interaction, and most teachers use groups for discussions or to assign tasks. The purpose of this study was to develop and test a student behavioral engagement model in a group-based flipped learning context by drawing on expectancy-value theory (EVT) and an interactional psychology perspective. Since interactional psychology considers human behavior a function of interaction between an individual and an encountered situation, we developed and tested a research model to explore interactions between the subjective (interest and utility) value of courses, expectancy beliefs (perceived task difficulty), and a group factor (group peer interaction) and their association with students’ behavioral engagement in a group-based flipped learning context. Based on data from a survey of 276 students in 78 groups in 8 classes of 2 management courses at a Taiwanese university, we used moderated multiple regression (MMR) to examine the study hypotheses. The results showed that (1) interest value and utility value were positively associated with students’ behavioral engagement, (2) the positive association between interest value and students’ behavioral engagement was weak under conditions of high perceived task difficulty, (3) a negative linear relationship existed between perceived task difficulty and students’ behavioral engagement, and (4) group peer interaction was positively associated with students’ behavioral engagement. Additionally, group peer interaction moderated the nonlinear relationship between perceived task difficulty and students’ behavioral engagement, in that, when group peer interaction was high and perceived task difficulty was moderate, students’ behavioral engagement was high, and (5) the positive association between utility value and students’ behavioral engagement was strong under conditions of high group peer interaction. Based on the findings, we provide suggestions for teachers intending to use group-based flipped learning.