Perceived Task Difficulty Research Articles

Adding Value to Public Schools

This research investigated the value added to middle school public education by pedagogically trained college students. An experimental design was employed in which 680 middle school pupils were randomly assigned to instructional groups. University arts and sciences students were put into two groups on the basis of those with formal teacher training and those without. Each student taught four lessons to his or her instructional group. Pupils were administered pre- and posttest measures on the content delivered in the four lessons and a reflection scale on lesson difficulty. Teachers' behaviors were recorded and scored independently by two trained observers. Results indicated that pupils' achievement was influenced by their perceptions of task difficulty and that teaching behaviors had a statistically significant influence on adjusted pupil achievement outcomes among students with formal pedagogical training. These results support the contention that pedagogical preparation of teachers adds value to middle school public education when measured in terms of pupil academic learning.

Consistent Left-Right Reversals for Visual Path Integration in Virtual Reality: More than a Failure to Update One's Heading?

Even in state-of-the-art virtual reality (VR) setups, participants often feel lost when navigating through virtual environments. In VR applications and psychological experiments, such disorientation is often compensated for by extensive training. Here, two experimental series investigated participants' sense of direction by means of a rapid point-to-origin paradigm without any performance feedback or training. This paradigm allowed us to study participants' intuitive spatial orientation in VR while minimizing the influence of higher cognitive abilities and compensatory strategies. After visually displayed passive excursions along one- or two-segment trajectories, participants were asked to point back to the origin of locomotion “as accurately and quickly as possible.” Despite using an immersive, high-quality video projection with a 84° × 63° field of view, participants' overall performance was rather poor. Moreover, about 40% of the participants exhibited striking qualitative errors, namely left-right reversals—despite not misinterpreting the visually simulated turning direction. Even when turning angles were announced in advance to obviate encoding errors due to misperceived turning angles, many participants still produced surprisingly large systematic and random errors, and perceived task difficulty and response times were unexpectedly high. Careful analysis suggests that some, but not all, of the left-right inversions can be explained by a failure to update visually displayed heading changes. Taken together, this study shows that even an immersive, high-quality video projection system is not necessarily sufficient for enabling natural and intuitive spatial orientation or automatic spatial updating in VR, even when advance information about turning angles was provided. We posit that investigating qualitative errors for basic spatial orientation tasks using, for example, rapid point-to-origin paradigms can be a powerful tool for evaluating and improving the effectiveness of VR setups in terms of enabling natural and unencumbered spatial orientation and performance. We provide some guidelines for VR system designers.

The introduction and perception of an OSCE with an element of self‐ and peer‐assessment

The purpose of the present study was to encourage reflective dental students by performing an educational Objective Structured Clinical Examination (OSCE) with an element of self- and peer-assessment. An interdisciplinary OSCE comprising cariology, endodontics and microbiology was set up for all third-year students. A blueprint secured representation of the skills to be tested, i.e. knowledge, interdisciplinary knowledge, communication, clinical reasoning and practical procedures. At each station positive and constructive feedback was given to the students based on predefined criteria. Further, the students received written marks after completion of the OSCE. At one station the feedback and marks were replaced by self- and peer-assessment performed by the students in groups after the OSCE. Afterwards, the 68 students and 8 teachers participating in the OSCE answered a questionnaire on their opinion and perception of the examination. The results showed good correlation between the marks given and the students' perception of task difficulty. Generally, there were no systematic variations in the marks given during the week or by individual assessors at the same station, except for one, as well as agreement with marks of the ordinary clinical assessment. The marks given during self- and peer-assessment differed widely, indicating a need for training in this aspect. The questionnaires revealed a very positive perception of the OSCE from both students and teachers. Thus, the majority found the examination relevant and of educational benefit, capable of improving the learning of the students and useful for assessment purposes. Also, the self- and peer-assessment was found useful by the students. In conclusion, this interdisciplinary OSCE stressing constructive feedback to the students was perceived very positively by students and teachers and recognised for its beneficial possibilities in education and assessment.

Effect of Scaffold End Frame Carrying Strategies on Worker Stepping Response, Postural Stability, and Perceived Task Difficulty

This study determined the most favorable strategy for carrying scaffold end frames while minimizing the risk of injuries from being struck by an object, falling, and overexertion. Scaffold erectors are at risk of high exposure to the aforementioned hazards associated with the dynamic human-scaffolding interface and work environments. Identifying an optimal work strategy can help reduce risk of injuries to the worker. Three carrying methods, four types of work surfaces, two weights of scaffold frames, and three directions of stepping movement were tested in a laboratory with 18 construction workers. The effects of carrying method on postural instability and task difficulty rating were significant for handling the 22-kg end frame. Response time, postural instability, and perceived task difficulty rating were significantly reduced when the 9-kg end frame was used as compared with the 22-kg frame. The symmetric side-carrying method was the best option for handling 22-kg scaffold end frames. A 9-kg end frame (e.g., made of reinforced lightweight materials) has the potential to reduce injury risk among scaffold handlers during their scaffold erection and dismantlingjobs. Scaffold erectors may want to adopt the symmetric side-carrying method as the primary technique for handling the 22-kg scaffold end frame, which is currently the one most used in the industry.

Subjective cognitive effort: A model of states, traits, and time.

Self-regulation theories were used to develop a dynamic model of the determinants of subjective cognitive effort. The authors assessed the roles of malleable states and stable individual differences. Subjective cognitive effort and perceived difficulty were measured while individuals performed an air traffic control task. As expected, Conscientiousness moderated the effort trajectory. Individuals with high Conscientiousness maintained subjective cognitive effort at high levels for longer than their counterparts. There were also individual differences in reactions to perceptions of task difficulty. The intra-individual relationship between perceived difficulty and subjective cognitive effort was stronger for individuals with low ability or low Conscientiousness than for their counterparts. A follow-up study showed that the measures of perceived difficulty and subjective cognitive effort were sensitive to a task difficulty manipulation as well as that the relationship between perceived difficulty and subjective cognitive effort held after controlling for self-set goal level. These findings contribute to the self-regulation literature by identifying factors that influence changes in subjective cognitive effort during skill acquisition.

Profiles of ability, effort, and difficulty: Relationships with worldviews, motivation and adjustment

Adopting a person-centered approach, we profiled 5th and 6th grade children's (152 boys and 161 girls) school-related beliefs about perceived task difficulty and agency beliefs in ability and effort. Five clusters were compared across key learning-related dimensions encompassing underlying worldviews (means–ends beliefs, normative difficulty, nature of ability), motivation (intrinsic, identified, introjected, and extrinsic), and adjustment (achievement and well-being): Agentic (high ability, high effort, low difficulty), Strivers (above average ability, high effort, high difficulty), Normative (average ability, effort and difficulty), Disengaged (low ability, low effort, average difficulty) and Challenged (low ability, low effort, high difficulty). The findings suggest that difficulty, perceived either as challenge or obstacle, plays an important role for the belief profiles, and that relationships with worldviews and motivation are indicative of adaptation and maladaptation.

The role of perceptions of task difficulty in relation to self-perceptions of ability, intrinsic value, attainment value, and performance

This study examined the role of perceptions of task difficulty in relation to self-perceptions of ability, intrinsic value, attainment value, and performance. Seventy-nine 8th graders completed surveys prior to task instruction and after the last practice session. Two days later, they completed a skill test. Participants who perceived the Lunastix task as more difficult were likely to have lower levels of self-perceptions of ability, express lower levels of interest, and obtain lower levels of performance scores on the skill test. Perceptions of task difficulty were negatively predicted by initial self-perceptions of ability. Further, for those who had more experience in obJect manipulation activities and reported higher ratings of their obJect manipulation ability, they were likely to express higher levels of initial self-perceptions of ability. When teaching a novel difficult task, teachers should relate it to other similar activities, provide students practice opportunities, and create a mastery-oriented learning environment.

Using visual feedback distortion to alter coordinated pinching patterns for robotic rehabilitation

BackgroundIt is common for individuals with chronic disabilities to continue using the compensatory movement coordination due to entrenched habits, increased perception of task difficulty, or personality variables such as low self-efficacy or a fear of failure. Following our previous work using feedback distortion in a virtual rehabilitation environment to increase strength and range of motion, we address the use of visual feedback distortion environment to alter movement coordination patterns.MethodsFifty-one able-bodied subjects participated in the study. During the experiment, each subject learned to move their index finger and thumb in a particular target pattern while receiving visual feedback. Visual distortion was implemented as a magnification of the error between the thumb and/or index finger position and the desired position. The error reduction profile and the effect of distortion were analyzed by comparing the mean total absolute error and a normalized error that measured performance improvement for each subject as a proportion of the baseline error.ResultsThe results of the study showed that (1) different coordination pattern could be trained with visual feedback and have the new pattern transferred to trials without visual feedback, (2) distorting individual finger at a time allowed different error reduction profile from the controls, and (3) overall learning was not sped up by distorting individual fingers.ConclusionIt is important that robotic rehabilitation incorporates multi-limb or finger coordination tasks that are important for activities of daily life in the near future. This study marks the first investigation on multi-finger coordination tasks under visual feedback manipulation.

The physiological cost of velocity coupling during tennis groundstrokes

Velocity coupling denotes a perceptual motor behaviour known to occur during coincidence timing tasks. Individuals have been shown to increase their effector limb speed with increases in stimulus speed during interceptive tasks. However, little is known about the physiological effects of velocity coupling. The aim of this study was to determine the physiological cost of velocity coupling during tennis groundstrokes. Eight male and eight female competitive tennis players volunteered to perform three 4-min bouts of continuous groundstrokes against balls projected from a tennis ball machine at speeds of 18, 22, and 27 m · s−1 (65, 79, and 97 km · h−1) and a frequency of 14 balls per minute, the order of which was counterbalanced. Breath-by-breath pulmonary gas exchange, heart rate, locomotion time, and limb acceleration were measured throughout each of the 4-min bouts. Capillary blood samples (for blood lactate analysis), rating of perceived exertion, and difficulty rating were taken at the end of each bout. Increasing ball speed did not influence the locomotion time between groundstrokes but did result in a bilateral increase in both the mean upper- and lower-limb acceleration (all P < 0.05). Velocity coupling behaviour increased oxygen uptake, blood lactate concentration, heart rate, rating of perceived exertion, and perceived task difficulty (all P < 0.05). It would appear, therefore, that velocity coupling influenced tennis groundstroke behaviour and indirectly modified the concurrent cardiopulmonary and metabolic responses.

The Relationship between task complexity and information search: The role of self‐efficacy

AbstractPrior research suggests the complexity of a product choice task is inversely related to the extent of consumers' external information search. The resource‐matching perspective holds that cognitive effort (e.g., external information search) is greatest when available cognitive resources (e.g., as determined by self‐efficacy) match the cognitive demands of a task (e.g., perceived task complexity). Within a brand‐choice context, the relationship between self‐efficacy and extent of information search appears nonmonotonic. In support of the resource‐matching perspective, consumers conduct the most extensive information search when their self‐efficacy matches perceived task difficulty. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Task complexity, theory of mind, and intentional reasoning: Effects on L2 speech production, interaction, uptake and perceptions of task difficulty

Three interactive tasks, increasing in the complexity of resource-directing reasoning demands on speaker/storyteller attribution of, and linguistic reference to, the thoughts and intentions of characters in narrative stimuli were performed by Japanese L1 speakers of English. Largely consistent with the claims of the Cognition Hypothesis, results of the present study show; (i) task complexity led to more complex speech assessed using specific measures motivated by the conceptual/linguistic demands of the tasks but did not, however, affect accuracy, fluency and complexity assessed using general measures; (ii) tasks requiring complex reasoning about characters' intentional states led to significantly more interaction, and uptake of premodified input than simpler versions; and (iii) output processing anxiety showed a linearly progressive, negative relationship to use of complex speech as tasks increased in complexity. The role of specific versus general measures of production is discussed, as is the importance of examining interactions of production, interaction and uptake with measures of individual differences when researching the influence of L2 task demands on learning and performance.

On the numerical forms of contingent valuation responses

Responses elicited by means of contingent valuation are often expressed in numerical forms termed “prominent numbers”, characterised by inexactness. This might arise because subjects find exactness in response unnecessary or valuation tasks intrinsically difficult. It has been suggested that the provision of numerical cues could influence the ease of completion of the valuation task, and thus its outcome. We describe an experiment undertaken to test three hypotheses. These are, first, that the perceived level of difficulty of the valuation task falls as the exactness of numerical cues provided to subjects increases. Second, it is hypothesised that subjects choose values characterised by higher degrees of exactness if they have been cued by numbers characterised by higher degrees of exactness. Third, the size of the chosen value is expected to be lower if the perceived task difficulty is higher. All three hypotheses are supported. Potential explanations for, and implications of, these findings are discussed.

The role of motivation in gendered educational and occupational trajectories related to maths

This study examined the continued gender imbalance in mathematics participation in senior high, which has implications for adolescents' future careers. It confirms persisting greater male participation in maths-related educational and occupational choices among this sample of Australian youth. Gendered course-taking in maths, along with participation intentions for maths-related careers, were explained using the Expectancy–Value framework of Eccles and colleagues (Eccles (Parsons) et al., 1983; Wigfield & Eccles, 2000). The influences of maths-related self-perceptions, intrinsic and utility values, and perceived task difficulty were assessed using longitudinal data from a sample of 442 adolescents spanning Grades 9 through 11 in Sydney, Australia. Gendered maths-related self-perceptions and intrinsic values were the major influences on gendered educational participation in senior high maths, which subsequently predicted maths-related career aspirations—over and above prior mathematical achievement. Utility value showed a curvilinear relationship with maths-related occupational intentions moderated by gender, whereby girls with the highest utility values planned for highly maths-related careers, while boys with mid through high utility values planned similarly highly maths-related careers. Recommendations focus on ways to enhance participation in maths, especially for girls.

Outcomes Among Family Caregivers of Aphasic Versus Nonaphasic Stroke Survivors

Adverse consequences are known to occur in family members responsible for providing care to stroke survivors. However, the differential effect of aphasic versus nonaphasic stroke on caregivers has not been well studied. This study compares selected outcomes (e.g., perceived task difficulty, depressive symptoms, and other negative stroke-related outcomes) among caregivers of aphasic (n = 46) and nonaphasic (n = 113) stroke survivors. Results indicated that caregivers of aphasic survivors perceived greater difficulty with tasks and had more negative stroke-related outcomes than caregivers of nonaphasic survivors. Communication with the survivor was rated as most upsetting and difficult by caregivers in the aphasic group, followed by managing behaviors. Lack of time for family and friends was evident. Female caregivers and caregivers of survivors with self-care deficits also perceived greater difficulty with tasks and negative outcomes. Comprehensive assessment of the unique needs of caregivers of aphasic survivors is suggested for more individualized nursing interventions.

Survey instrument for the universal design of consumer products

Universal design is a process intended to include all user groups in product or environmental design. The objective of this study was to develop a usability testing survey instrument to inform how well consumer products complied with established principles of universal design. Thirty-six adults, aging adults and adult wheelchair users performed standardized tasks with pens, food storage containers, pliers and calculators, and for each task responded to a preliminary set of survey items and rated task difficulty. Factor analysis of the survey responses produced an eleven-factor solution that accounted for 67% of the variance in scores and corresponded fairly closely to the principles of universal design. Analysis of scale scores developed from each factor showed that some of the scales were sensitive to product feature and user group differences, and were negatively associated with perceived task difficulty. Such a tool may aid designers who intend their products for user groups of diverse abilities and preferences.

Core stability exercises on and off a Swiss ball

Marshall PW, Murphy BA. Core stability exercises on and off a Swiss ball. Objectives To assess lumbopelvic muscle activity during different core stability exercises on and off a Swiss ball. Design Prospective comparison study. Setting Research laboratory. Participants Eight healthy volunteers from a university population. Intervention Subjects performed 4 exercises on and off a Swiss ball: inclined press-up, upper body roll-out, single-leg hold, and quadruped exercise. Main outcome measures Surface electromyography from selected lumbopelvic muscles, normalized to maximum voluntary isometric contraction, and median frequency analysis of electromyography power spectrum. Visual analog scale for perception of task difficulty. Results There was a significant increase in the activation of the rectus abdominus with performance of the single-leg hold and at the top of the press-up on the Swiss ball. This led to changes in the relation between the activation levels of the lumbopelvic muscles measured. Conclusions Although there was evidence to suggest that the Swiss ball provides a training stimulus for the rectus abdominus, the relevance of this change to core stability training requires further research because the focus of stabilization training is on minimizing rectus abdominus activity. Further support has also been provided about the quality of the quadruped exercise for core stability.

Cognitive Complexity and Task Sequencing: Studies in a Componential Framework for Second Language Task Design

This paper describes a framework for researching the Cognition Hypothesis which claims that pedagogic tasks be sequenced for learners on the basis of increases in their cognitive complexity. It distinguishes dimensions of complexity which increase the conceptual and linguistic demands tasks make on communication, so creating the conditions for L2 development, from dimensions which increase demands made on accessing a current interlanguage repertoire during real-time performance. Studies providing some support for three predictions of the Cognition Hypothesis (Robinson 2001a) are then reviewed. Increasing the cognitive demands of tasks along developmental dimensions; a) encourages grammaticization, and so greater accuracy and complexity of L2 production; b) promotes interaction and heightened attention to form, and memory for input, therefore increasing incorporation of forms made salient in the input; and c) individual differences contributing to perceptions of task difficulty progressively differentiate performance and learning as tasks increase in complexity.

Salivary Cortisol Level, Salivary Flow Rate, and Masticatory Muscle Activity in Response to Acute Mental Stress: A Comparison between Aged and Young Women

Background: Age-related effects on physiological stress reactions regarding changes in salivary cortisol concentration, saliva flow rate, and masticatory muscle activity, as well as the corresponding perceived mental stress and performance in response to acute stressors, have not yet been fully described. Objective: Thus, the aim of this study was to assess the age-related variations in these variables in response to minor acute and naturalistic stressors in terms of computer tasks. Methods: 13 aged (60–70 years old) and 13 young (20–30 years old) women with frequent practice and long experience with computer use were recruited by personal contact and flyers. The subjects were healthy and had full dental arches and no orofacial pain. The computer tasks were randomized and comprised a mentally demanding, modified Stroop colour-word test (CWT) and a less demanding reference test, both with a duration of 20 min and with equal physical demand. Visual analogue scales for global assessment of mental stress and perceived task difficulty and performance, measurements of saliva flow rate and cortisol concentration (unstimulated whole saliva), as well as surface electromyography of the temporalis and masseter muscles were used for assessment, and Spearman correlation analysis and Anova with repeated measures were used for statistical evaluation. Results: The perceived task-related stress and task difficulty were significantly higher and the personal satisfaction with the task performance significantly poorer in the aged women. The cortisol concentration, indicating the stress level, showed a small, but significant increase in response to the tasks. Also the saliva flow rate increased. This response was most pronounced in the aged and during the CWT. The average electromyogram varied significantly between age groups and tasks, with higher levels and shorter relative periods with gaps in the aged women and in the CWT. In addition, the peak activity of the jaw elevator muscles at mouse clicking was significantly elevated as a form of co-activation or attention-related activity. Conclusions: The study showed marked differences in the response to mental demands in aged as compared with young women. The mental stress, reflected by increases of salivary cortisol concentration, saliva flow rate, visual analogue scale ratings, and activity level of the jaw elevator muscles, was more pronounced in the aged women in response to the computer tasks.

Effects of Vertical Land-Vehicle Ride Motion on Human Reach Performance and Perceived Task Difficulty

Vehicle motions can adversely affect the ability of an operator to quickly and accurately reach for targets located inside vehicles. Although previous ergonomic studies investigated human performance during reach tasks, few of them considered effects of non-stationary working environments. This lack of knowledge is a problem, as ergonomic guidelines are not currently available for the design of land-based vehicle interiors. The present study aims to assess the effects of vertical vehicle ride motion on accuracy, movement completion time, and perceived difficulty rating during target-directed reaching tasks. The Ride Motion Simulator (RMS) at the US Army Tank-automotive and Armaments Command (TACOM) was used to simulate vertical vehicle motion with various discrete frequencies and kinematic reach movement data for two subjects were recorded using a VICON motion capture system. Movement completion time for reaches, accuracy in pointing tasks, and perceived difficulty ratings were found to be adversely affected by vertical vehicle motions.

Estimating the difficulty of oral proficiency tasks: what does the test-taker have to offer?

This study investigates the impact of performance conditions on perceptions of task difficulty in a test of spoken language, in light of the cognitive complexity framework proposed by Skehan (1998). Candidates performed a series of narrative tasks whose characteristics, and the conditions under which they were performed, were manipulated, and the impact of these on task performance was analysed. Test-takers recorded their perceptions of the relative difficulty of each task and their attitudes to them. Results offered little support for Skehan’s framework in the context of oral proficiency assessment, and also raise doubts about post hoc estimates of task difficulty by test-takers.