Packaging Operations Research Articles

PHARMACEUTICALS Merck will cut jobs in revamp of former Schering-Plough headquarters

Ending two years of speculation about the fate of the former Schering-Plough headquarters in Kenilworth, N.J., Merck & Co. has announced plans to convert the site to a biologics research hub as part of a $120 million project. Merck, which acquired Schering-Plough in 2009, says the shift will begin this year. It will involve the transfer of approximately 350 employees focused on bioprocess and bioanalytic research from Merck’s other New Jersey laboratories in Summit, Union, and Rahway to Kenilworth. Meanwhile, existing pharmaceutical chemical manufacturing and drug and health care packaging operations in Kenil worth will be transferred to other Merck locations over the next 12–18 months, leading to the elimination of about 580 manufacturing positions at the site. The decision to convert the Kenilworth facility to a biologics R&D hub was based on the range of research already taking place in Kenilworth in discovery and preclinical development, according to Merck spokesman David Caouette. Merck plans ...

The coefficient of restitution of some pharmaceutical tablets/compacts

When tablets collide during manufacturing and handling operations they rebound with a force and velocity that is determined by the collision conditions and the properties of the materials. This collision-rebound behavior of solid bodies can be described using a parameter known as the “coefficient of restitution” (CoR). In this work, the CoR of a range of pharmaceutical tablets/compacts is measured using a simple “drop test”, and the influences of material properties (elastic modulus, solid fraction, etc.) and collision conditions (substrate, energy/speed, etc.) are investigated. The compacted pharmaceutical materials have CoR values that range from 0.4 to 0.9, and the CoR generally increases with increasing compact solid fraction. The CoR varies with the mechanical properties of both colliding bodies and is lower for more plastic collisions and higher for elastic collisions. This behavior is consistent with theories developed for non-pharmaceutical solids, and can be predicted provided that the elasticity and yield stress of the samples are treated as porosity dependent parameters. In this case, the CoR varies with the impact velocity nearly raised to the fourth root. Having established a simple and reproducible test for the CoR of pharmaceutical compacts and tablets it should be possible to create more accurate engineering models and computer simulations of tablet manufacturing and packaging operations.

A tabu search algorithm for scheduling pharmaceutical packaging operations

This paper addresses a practical scheduling problem arising in the packaging department of a pharmaceutical industrial plant. The problem is modeled as a multi-purpose machine scheduling problem with setup and removal times, release and due dates and additional constraints related to the scarce availability of tools and human operators. The objective functions are minimization of makespan and maximum tardiness in lexicographic order. Representing a solution with a directed graph allows us to devise an effective tabu search algorithm to solve the problem. Computational experiments, carried on real and randomly generated instances, show the effectiveness of this approach.

Design and control of a high-acceleration precision positioning system using a novel flexible decoupling mechanism

This article presents a high-acceleration precision positioning system to improve the efficiency and precision of micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) packaging. The positioning system is direct driven by linear voice coil actuators (LVCAs), and the mass and inertia of the motion system are significantly reduced by using a novel flexible decoupling mechanism based on flexure hinges. The decoupling principle of the mechanism is introduced, and the flexure hinges are designed by using an analytical method. Through dynamic analysis, the stiffness and preload of the spring are determined. With the aid of finite-element method and dynamic analysis, the influences of flexure hinges on the characteristics of the positioning system are investigated. Based on the dynamic characteristics of LVCA and the developed mechanism structure, the electromechanical coupled models are established. Minimum deadbeat response control strategy with a pre-filter is implemented to control the positioning system, and the parameters of the controller are optimized. Experimental tests are carried out to examine the characteristics of the positioning system. The results show that the positioning system provides good performances and satisfies the requirements of MEMS packaging operations.

Development and testing of a brush feeder

Some manufacturing processes and many packaging operations require oriented and aligned parts. When a high feed rate cannot be obtained by human operators or when sophisticated vision systems, able to guide the picking operations, are too expensive or too complex for a specific application, a different approach to solve the problem is necessary. In this paper a brush feeding system based on tilted brushes is presented. It allows the controlled motion and the correct alignment of products different in shape, weight and surface roughness. The brush feeder is analyzed both from a theoretical and experimental point of view.

An investigation into the kinetic (sliding) friction of some tablets and capsules

The kinetic (or sliding) friction of pharmaceutical tablets and capsules influences how they will behave during the conveying, coating, and packaging operations that are used for drug product manufacturing. In order to logically design equipment for manufacturing and packaging operations, and to simulate manufacturing and packaging performance (for example, using discrete or finite element modeling approaches), it is necessary to quantify the magnitude of the kinetic friction. In this work, the coefficient of kinetic friction of a range of pharmaceutical tablets and capsules has been measured for the first time using a pin-on-disk tribometer. Binary tablet–tablet contacts and the contacts between tablets or capsules and common equipment surfaces were studied. The range of the friction coefficients was large (between 0.00 and 0.74), and the values depended strongly on the identity of both contacting materials. Tablet–tablet contacts generally exhibited lower friction coefficients than tablet–polymer or tablet–metal contacts. Polymeric surfaces were generally less frictional than metal surfaces, even those that were highly polished. Tablet coatings appeared to have a marked effect on the kinetic friction coefficient between tablets and equipment surfaces, with the hardest coatings tending to be the least frictional. The surface roughness of the tablets and contacting surfaces did not contribute to the coefficient of kinetic friction in a consistent manner. The implications of the results for the design of conveying, processing and packaging operations are discussed.

Characterization of Low Density Open-Cell Foams for Space Inflatable Applications

Many space agencies are oriented toward the use of inflatable technology for future-generation habitats and modules in an effort to reduce the overall weight, which in turn increases the weight payload that can be sent into orbit or in planetary transfer. These innovative habitats must provide a micrometeoroid and orbital debris protection. It is necessary to determine which polymeric foam material could be more adequate for the purpose. In this work, several open-cell foams were selected to be tested. Because the candidate foammust fulfill packaging and deployment operations and capture debris fragmentations, mechanical properties were evaluated. Furthermore, atomic oxygen surface exposure was performed on the foams to simulate low-Earth-orbit conditions in case of accidental direct exposure. This experimental investigation provides several basic results for selecting the most suitable foam for inflatable micrometeoroid and orbital debris protection.

Hermetic Package for Optical MEMS

This paper describes the design and fabrication of a hermetic LTCC package for an optical MEMS chip designed for space applications. The package ensured electrical and optical connections, mechanical positioning, atmosphere control, and finally low thermally induced stress on the MEMS during the final packaging operation. The package consisted of a 10-layer LTCC case with a recessed cavity for the MEMS chip, and a glass lid (with antireflection coating and thin-film metallization for soldering) for optical I/O. The chip was mechanically attached to the bottom of the cavity with a silicone adhesive, and electrically connected through gold wire bonds. The gold wire bonding pads were routed through the LTCC module to a MegArray BGA connector. Hermetic closure of the cavity was carried out by soldering the glass lid onto the case in a controlled atmosphere. The two main difficulties involved in such a package were the high electrical connection density (400 connections) and low-temperature hermetic sealing. LTCC design rules for small-pitch lines, thick- and thin-film materials selection, screen printing, lamination techniques, and soldering methods are described in this paper.

CHEMIE UETIKON GROWS IN THE BLACK FOREST

DRIVING THROUGH Lahr, a small industrial town in the Black Forest region of southwest Germany, Heinz Sieger points to factories and warehouses—a printing plant, a metalworking facility, and food and packaging operations. Sieger, chief executive officer of contract pharmaceutical chemical company Chemie Uetikon, notes that these businesses have been under pressure for years and are now facing a possible worldwide recession. “This will have a strong influence on future investment, and it will reduce consumption in all these markets,” he says. Pulling up at the gate to Chemie Uetikon, conversation turns to the fine chemicals industry, which Sieger notes is facing its own problems, given estimates of nearly 40% overcapacity in Europe and increased competition from India. Sieger says that despite this, and despite the certainty of tough economic times ahead, his company is optimistic about growth. Chemie Uetikon recently doubled current Good Manufacturing Practice (cGMP-certified capacity to 92 m 3 of reactor ...

Characterization of the Temperature Dependence of the Piezoresistive Coefficients of Silicon From ${-}150\,^{\circ}$C to ${+}125\,^{\circ}$C

Stress sensing test chips are widely utilized to investigate integrated circuit die stresses arising from assembly and packaging operations. In order to utilize these test chips to measure stresses over a wide range of temperatures, one must have values of six piezoresistive coefficients for n- and p-type silicon over the temperature range of interest. However, the literature provides limited data over the desired range, and even the data at room temperature exhibit wide discrepancies in magnitude as well as sign. Thus, this work focuses on an extensive experimental study of the temperature dependence of the fundamental piezoresistive coefficients, pi <sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">11</sub> , pi <sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">12</sub> , and pi <sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">44</sub> , for both p- and n-type silicon from -150degC to +125degC, as well as a number of useful combined coefficients. Measurements were performed using stress sensors fabricated on (001) silicon. In order to minimize errors associated with misalignment with the crystallographic axes on (001) silicon wafers, anisotropic wet etching was used to accurately locate the axes. Four-point bending (4PB) was used to generate the required stress in strip-on-beam samples, and finite-element simulations were used to determine the states of stress in the silicon material.

The Effect of the Transverse Sensitivity on Measurement of the Piezoresistive Coefficients of Silicon

Stress sensing test chips fabricated on (001) and (111) silicon surfaces are capable of measuring die stresses arising from assembly and packaging operations. The chips incorporate resistor or transistor sensing elements that are used to measure stresses via the observation of the changes in their resistivity/mobility. The piezoresistive behavior of such sensors is characterized by three piezoresistive (pi) coefficients, which are electro-mechanical material constants. Stress sensor rosette elements are often designed with serpentine layouts in order to achieve acceptable resistance for measurement and to eliminate area lost to multiple contacts. The transverse sensitivity of such designs induces errors in the values of piezoresistive coefficients extracted from the sensor elements, and two cases are important. First, in order to determine values of the three fundamental piezoresistive coefficients of silicon, any transverse sensitivity dependencies must be corrected for, or eliminated from, the calibration elements. In contrast, however, application of the resistors as stress sensors requires the use of uncorrected values of the piezoresistive coefficients in the stress data reduction. This work focuses on a study of transverse sensitivity effects in resistors fabricated in silicon and corrected values of the piezoresistive coefficients are confirmed experimentally by comparing pairs of resistive stress sensors (transverse and transverse-free) on the (001) silicon wafer plane. The stress sensitivity for transverse-free cases was observed to be approximately 25–30% larger than that for transverse cases. The effects of crystallographic misalignment and lateral diffusion that occur during the fabrication process are also included in the discussion.

Finite element simulation of folding carton erection failure

In response to recent European Union (EU) regulations on packaging waste, the packaging industry requires greater fundamental understanding of the machine-material interactions that take place during packaging operations. Such an understanding is necessary to handle thinner lighter-weight materials, specify the material properties required for successful processing and design right-first-time machinery. The folding carton industry, in particular, has been affected by the new legislation and needs to realize the potential of computational tools for simulating the behaviour of packaging materials and generating the necessary understanding. This paper describes the creation and validation of a detailed finite element model of a carton during a common packaging operation. The model is applied here to address the problem of carton buckling. The carton was modelled using a linear elastic material definition with non-linear crease behaviour. Air inrush suction, which is believed to cause buckling, was quantified experimentally and incorporated using contact damping interactions. The results of the simulation are validated against high-speed video of carton production. The model successfully predicts the pattern of deformation of the carton during buckling and its increasing magnitude with production rate. The model can be applied to study the effects of variation in material properties, pack properties and machine settings. Such studies will improve responsiveness to change and will ultimately allow end-users to use thinner, lighter-weight materials in accordance with the EU regulations.

Simulating the behaviour of folded cartons during complex packing operations

The folding carton is a widely used packaging solution. Recent European Union packaging legislation has forced carton manufacturers to use lighter-weight grades of carton board. This typically results in a reduction in board stiffness, which can lead to decreased process efficacy or even prevent successful processing. In order to overcome this, end-users lower production rates and fine-tune packaging machine settings for each pack and material. This trial-and-error approach is necessary because the rules relating machine set-up to pack design and material properties are not generally well known. The present study addresses this fundamental issue through the creation of a finite-element computer simulation of carton processing. Mechanical testing was performed to ascertain the key mechanical properties of the carton walls and creases. The carton model was validated against the experimental results and was then subjected to the machine-material interactions that take place during complex packaging operations. The overall approach was validated and the simulation showed good agreement with the physical system. The results of the simulation can be used to determine guidelines relating machine set-up criteria to carton properties. This will improve responsiveness to change and will ultimately allow end-users to process thinner lighter-weight materials more effectively.

Thermal stability of vapor phase deposited self-assembled monolayers for MEMS anti-stiction

Six different source chemicals (organosilanes) were successfully used for deposition of self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) onto silicon substrates by a vapor phase process. Five different fluorocarbon coatings and one hydrocarbon coating were deposited. The thermal stability of the coatings was studied in detail with respect to degradation as a function of temperature, and for the fluorocarbon coatings also the degradation rate at 400 °C. For fluorocarbon coatings deposited from FDTS a useful lifetime of approximately 90 min at 400 °C was found allowing the coating to survive high temperature MEMS packaging operations, while fluorocarbon coatings deposited from FOTS, FOMDS, FOTES and FOMMS were less stable. The hydrocarbon coating deposited from OTS degrades already at approximately 200 °C. The thermal stability of the SAM coatings was found to be significantly reduced if aggregations from the deposition process are present on the coatings.

Packaging's latest trend: embedded robots

In many consumer goods enterprises, finished goods packaging operations are often the greatest bottleneck to new product introduction. Manufacturers spend a lot of money on packaging machinery, but most of the budget goes for specific product lines dedicated to a single purpose. With the ever-shortening cycle of new consumer product introductions, inflexible packaging machinery is now seen as a barrier in the production system. Integral robotics, which is now becoming the most effective means to add agility and flexibility. This offers rapid reconfiguration and expands the operating range of the individual machine. The key to this machine integration is the industrial programming environment provided by the IEC 61131 standard, which has been extended to include robot functionality with ELAU&apos;s `Robotic Library&apos;.

Keeping cool while saving space and money: a semi-integrated, sensorless PM brushless drive for a 42-V automotive HVAC compressor

This article describes a semiintegrated permanent-magnet (PM) brushless drive for a 42-V electric compressor for automotive heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC). Electric compressors have the advantages of low refrigerant emissions, flexible packaging, and efficient variable-speed operation. These are intended for vehicles where the engine shuts off during stops, as in "stop and go" (starter generator), or for vehicles with auxiliary power units (fuel cells). A low-cost, semiintegrated position sensorless motor controller has been designed, build and tested over a wide speed range with overall system efficiencies of 85% or more over a significant portion of its operating range. Issues related to sensorless operation, packaging and thermal management, EMI abatement and performance of the drive are discussed.

Lead-Free Solder Interconnect Reliability

This book provides the most up-to-date knowledge and data available on the reliability of lead-free solder interconnects. The content has been written by leading experts working in this important technology area. Both fundamental research and practical considerations are addressed. Environmental regulations are driving the worldwide adoption of lead-free soldering technology for electronics packaging, board assembly, and related manufacturing operations. While a significant amount of research and development work has been conducted in recent years on manufacturing issues to enable the conversion to lead-free solders, data from studies related to the reliability of lead-free solder interconnects are still emerging. Many research projects around the world have been undertaken to study lead-free solder reliability under different loading conditions. This book is the first comprehensive guide to reliability of lead-free solder interconnects.

Effect of irradiation on colour and lipid oxidation of dry-cured hams from free-range reared and intensively reared pigs

The effect of irradiation dose (0, 5 and 10 kGy) of vacuum-packaged Iberian dry-cured ham slices from pigs fed on concentrate (CON) or free-range reared (FRG) was studied in relation to TBA-RS, hexanal content and instrumental colour changes. TBA-RS values increased after irradiation in the two sets of hams and the increase was dose-dependent. FRG samples showed higher TBA-RS values than CON samples in all treatments, although differences in the rate of formation of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances were different in the two types of hams, being higher in CON samples than in FRG ones. Irradiation of dry-cured ham slices significantly increased hexanal contents in both sets of hams. Irradiation produced statistically significant increases in vacuum-packed dry-cured ham slices lightness (L ⁎-value), yellowness (b ⁎-value) and chroma (C ⁎-value). Irradiation resulted in significantly lower hue angle (h°) values and higher a ⁎-values in both sets of hams indicating a redder colour of irradiated samples than non-irradiated, and these changes were greater in FRG samples than in CON samples. Differences in composition characteristics of raw material could play an important role in the irradiation-induced changes on colour and lipid oxidation of vacuum-packaged dry-cured ham slices. Industrial relevance Iberian ham is dry-cured meat product with a high sensory quality due to pig fattening feature and the characteristics of its processing. Both factors lead to a product with characteristic cured red colour of the lean, an intense, characteristic and pleasant flavour, unique in dry-cured hams, derived from intense lipid oxidative phenomena. New commercialization formats of dry-cured Iberian hams include vacuum-packed sliced ham. Although the low Aw, NaCl and nitrite/nitrate contents make dry-cured ham not adequate for the growth of pathogens and spoilage microorganisms (cocci gram+ and yeast), those may be present on the surface of whole hams and reach the sliced product during the final boning, slicing and packaging operations even with the observation of strict hygienic procedures despite the implementation of modern technologies and HACCP systems, constituting a permanent risk of contamination. Dry-cured Iberian ham, as a result of its chemical characteristics, is a product with a long shelf-life at refrigeration temperature, however the risk of spoilage or pathogen growth could increase in the case of temperature abuse for a long stored period. Finally, due to health concerns, salting and curing process of dry-cured Iberian hams tend to a reduction in levels of NaCl and nitrite used. That could increase the risk associated to microorganism presence in dry-cured sliced hams. The use of irradiation could minimizes this risk, however irradiation could have important effects on overall quality of dry-cured Iberian products in which colour and extent of lipid oxidation and lipid oxidation-derived volatile compounds play an important role in consumer acceptation of the product.

Hierarchical entity-relationship diagrams: the model, method of creation and experimental evaluation

A bottom-up method for creating a hierarchy of entity-relationship diagrams (HERD) from a given, "flat" ER diagram (ERD) is proposed. The hierarchy consists of simple and interrelated diagrams--ER structures--with external relationships to other structures. The HERD-tree diagram, which provides the most general view of the conceptual schema, is located at the top of the hierarchy. The method is based on packaging operations, which group entities and relationships according to certain criteria. These operations are applied in several steps on a given (presumably large-scale) ERD. We describe the new constructs, which are added to the ER model to enable the creation of HERD, and a bottom-up method for creating HERD. We also evaluate HERD from the point of view of user comprehension and preference, based on an experimental comparison to flat ERDs.

Matrix Representation of Topological Changes in Metamorphic Mechanisms

Metamorphic mechanisms form a class of mechanisms that has the facilities to change configuration from one kind to another with a resultant change in the number of effective links and mobility of movement. This paper develops formal matrix operations to describe the distinct topology of configurations found in a metamorphic mechanism and to complete transformation between them. A new way is hence introduced for modeling topological changes of metamorphic mechanisms in general. It introduces a new elimination E-elementary matrix together with a U-elementary matrix to form an EU-elementary matrix operation to produce the configuration transformation. The use of these matrix operations is demonstrated in both spherical and spatial metamorphic mechanisms, the mechanistic models taken from the industrial packaging operations of carton folding manipulation that stimulated this study.