Outbreaks Of Peste Des Petits Ruminants Research Articles

Temporal and Spatial Epidemiological Analysis of Peste Des Petits Ruminants Outbreaks from the Past 25 Years in Sheep and Goats and Its Control in India.

This study was aimed to understand the temporal and spatial epidemiology of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in India using national surveillance data available in the National Animal Diseases Referral Expert System (NADRES) along with its control plan undertaken. On analysis of the outbreaks/cases reports in sheep and goats in NADRES database from 1995 to 2019, it was observed that PPR features among the top ten diseases and stands first among viral diseases, and among reported deaths, PPR accounts for 36% of mortality in sheep and goats. PPR outbreaks occur round the year in all the seasons but are encountered most frequently during the lean period especially, in the winter season (January to February) in different regions/zones. The reported outbreaks have been progressively declined in most of the states in India due to the implementation of a mass vaccination strategic program since 2011. On state-wise analysis, the PPR risk-areas showed wide variations with different levels of endemicity. Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, and Karnataka were the top three outbreaks reported states during 1995–2010, whereas Jharkhand and West Bengal states reported more outbreaks during 2011–2015 and 2016–2019 periods. The temporal and spatial distribution of PPR in India provides valuable information on the hotspot areas/zones to take appropriate policy decisions towards its prevention and control in different regions/zones of India. The study also identifies when and where intensive surveillance and vaccination along with biosecurity measures need to be implemented for the control and eradication of the disease from India in consonance with the PPR Global Control and Eradication Strategy.

Prediction for Global Peste des Petits Ruminants Outbreaks Based on a Combination of Random Forest Algorithms and Meteorological Data.

Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) is an acute and highly contagious transboundary disease caused by the PPR virus (PPRV). The virus infects goats, sheep and some wild relatives of small domestic ruminants, such as antelopes. PPR is listed by the World Organization for Animal Health as an animal disease that must be reported promptly. In this paper, PPR outbreak data combined with WorldClim database meteorological data were used to build a PPR prediction model. Using feature selection methods, eight sets of features were selected: bio3, bio10, bio15, bio18, prec7, prec8, prec12, and alt for modeling. Then different machine learning algorithms were used to build models, among which the random forest (RF) algorithm was found to have the best modeling effect. The ACC value of prediction accuracy for the model on the training set can reach 99.10%, while the ACC on the test sets was 99.10%. Therefore, RF algorithms and eight features were finally selected to build the model in order to build the online prediction system. In addition, we adopt single-factor modeling and correlation analysis of modeling variables to explore the impact of each variable on modeling results. It was found that bio18 (the warmest quarterly precipitation), prec7 (the precipitation in July), and prec8 (the precipitation in August) contributed significantly to the model, and the outbreak of the epidemic may have an important relationship with precipitation. Eventually, we used the final qualitative prediction model to establish a global online prediction system for the PPR epidemic.

Progress towards Eradication of Peste des Petits Ruminants through Vaccination.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a transboundary viral disease that threatens more than 1.74 billion goats and sheep in approximately 70 countries globally. In 2015, the international community set the goal of eradicating PPR by 2030, and, since then, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) have jointly developed and implemented the Global Control and Eradication Strategy for PPR. Here, data from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization Statistical Database (FAOSTAT), the OIE World Animal Health Information System (WAHIS), Regional Roadmap Meetings, and countries’ responses to PPR Monitoring and Assessment Tool (PMAT) questionnaires were analyzed to inform on current progress towards PPR eradication. OIE recorded the use of over 333 million doses of vaccine in 12 countries from 2015 to 2018, 41.8% of which were used in Asia and 58.2% in Africa. Between 2015 and 2019, a total of 12,757 PPR outbreaks were reported to OIE: 75.1% in Asia, 24.8% in Africa, and 0.1% in Europe. The number of global outbreaks in 2019 fell to 1218, compared with 3688 in 2015. Analysis of vaccine use and PPR outbreaks in countries indicates that disease control strategies, particularly vaccination campaigns and vaccine distribution strategies, still require scientific evaluation. It is imperative that vaccination is undertaken based on the epidemiology of the disease in a region and is coordinated between neighboring countries to restrict transboundary movements. Strengthening surveillance and post-vaccination sero-monitoring at the national level is also essential. The PPR vaccine stock/bank established by FAO, OIE, and other partners have improved the quality assurance and supply of vaccines. However, to achieve PPR eradication, filling the funding gap for vaccination campaigns and other program activities will be critical.

Prevalence of suspected peste des petits ruminants infection and complicating bacteria in goats in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria

Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) is endemic in Nigeria and causes major economic losses due to the high rates of mortality and morbidity in infected domestic sheep and goats. The outbreak of PPR in some goat herds was observed in the Abeokuta area of Ogun State, Nigeria, between January and August, 2014. Amongst the herds affected were those of the research animal in the Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta. The goat herds were located in the Directorate of the University Farms (DUFARMS), the University environments and Apakila. The goats were intensively managed on concentrates and Panicum maximiun grass. The morbidity rates were 80-100 per cent in all the herds while mortality rates varied from 10% to 70%. Disease diagnosis was based on history, clinical signs and Post-mortem lesions. Complicating secondary bacteria were isolated from nasal and ocular discharges, which isolated, identified and sensitivity results obtained from laboratory tests. Treatments were carried out with sensitive antibiotics, analgesics and fluid therapy in a symptomatic approach. We conclude that PPR is endemic in this area of study and is responsible for a great loss in goat production and poverty of the rural goat farmers. We recommend that vaccination against PPR in this study area be instituted to avert the deleterious effects of the disease.

Pathological and molecular investigation of Peste des Petits Ruminants outbreak in goats of Nagpur district, India

Present study reports on transportation stress aspect for an outbreak of PPR in goats of Nagpur district of Maharashtra. Detailed post-mortem examination of goats was conducted having history of transportation and clinical symptoms suspected of PPR. Characteristic erosive ulcerative lesions in mouth, inflammatory lesions in respiratory tract, haemorrhagic lesions in gastrointestinal tract and enlargement of mesenteric lymph nodes were noticed. Lung and spleen tissue samples were used for RT-PCR assay by targeting M and N gene which depicted the product size of 124bp and 351 bp respectively. It can be concluded that the RT-PCR assay targeting M and N gene is rapid, sensitive and specific technique as compared to other conventional methods. Further, transportation stress might have predisposed the flock to PPRV infection.

World epidemiological meta-analyses of peste des petits ruminants (1997-2017).

Estimating the occurrence and distribution of infection and identification of risk factors remain key components in understanding the epizootiology and monitoring of peste des petits ruminants (PPR). This study was performed from 1997 to 2017, and included details of flocks with emergent infections, within-flock prevalence and risk association between PPR incidence and various flock management factors worldwide. In assessing the impact of PPR on livestock, outbreak incidence per country was used as an effective indicator of the intensity of the infection process. To decode the spatial and temporal dynamics of PPR outbreaks and clarify their relationship with geographical factors, systematic review and logistic regression analyses were conducted. The impact of climatic and socio-economic conditions on PPR was moderate and high, respectively. In the PPR risk analysis, infected PPR zones were 1.68 times more likely to spread the infection to goat farms than to sheep farms (relative risk: 1.69; odds ratio: 3.26). Moreover, during PPR occurrence, goats are more susceptible to infection than sheep. Through a regression model of outbreaks, a value of 960.67 outbreaks was calculated as the expected mean in 2018. The polynomial regression of PPR cases was followed by extrapolation (medium-sized smoothing of the three following points) to define the expected value in 2018. The probability of PPR could be effectively reduced by coordinating the work in disadvantaged countries with low-income farmers, and disease control must be prioritised to support alleviation of poverty, which has a negative impact on livestock production.

A molecular and pathological study of peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) from field outbreaks in Palestine, 2017-2019.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a severe, highly contagious and fatal viral disease of small ruminants causing high economic losses. Therefore, the disease was targeted for eradication by 2030. The aim of this study was to investigate for the first time the molecular and pathological characterization of the circulating PPR virus (PPRV) in sheep and goat in Palestine. Samples were collected from suspected necropsy cases of sheep and goats during recent outbreaks in two provinces in Palestine between 2017 and 2019. In this study, severe PPR outbreaks occurred in sheep and goats causing typical lesions which include erosive and ulcerative stomatitis, bronchointerstitial pneumonia and severe enteritis. For the molecular investigation of PPRV, suspected animals were examined for the presence of PPRV by RT-PCR. PPRV genome was detected in all samples. Subsequently, two samples were used for N gene sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of PPRV isolates. The nucleotide sequence and phylogenetic analysis indicated that the Palestinian PPRV isolates were genetically clustered within the lineage IV isolates of the virus among populations of sheep and goats which most prevalent in Asia, the Middle East and recently Africa. Further analysis showed that the Palestinian isolates were closely related to those described in Turkey and Iraq, suggesting a common origin of PPRV isolates in the region. This information is critical to understand the molecular epidemiology of this disease in the region and helps to develop appropriate control measures for eradication of this disease.

Spatial Multicriteria Evaluation for Mapping the Risk of Occurrence of Peste des Petits Ruminants in Eastern Africa and the Union of the Comoros.

Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV), responsible for peste des petits ruminants (PPR), is widely circulating in Africa and Asia. The disease is a huge burden for the economy and development of the affected countries. In Eastern Africa, the disease is considered endemic. Because of the geographic proximity and existing trade between eastern African countries and the Comoros archipelago, the latter is at risk of introduction and spread, and the first PPR outbreaks occurred in the Union of the Comoros in 2012. The objective of this study was to map the areas suitable for PPR occurrence and spread in the Union of the Comoros and four eastern African countries, namely Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, and Tanzania. A Geographic Information System (GIS)-based Multicriteria Evaluation (MCE) was developed. Risk factors for PPR occurrence and spread, and their relative importance, were identified using literature review and expert-based knowledge. Corresponding geographic data were collected, standardized, and combined based on a weighted linear combination to obtain PPR suitability maps. The accuracy of the maps was assessed using outbreak data from the EMPRES database and a ROC curve analysis. Our model showed an excellent ability to distinguish between absence and presence of outbreaks in Eastern Africa (AUC = 0.907; 95% CI [0.820–0.994]), and a very good performance in the Union of the Comoros (AUC = 0.889, 95% CI: [0.694–1]). These results highlight the efficiency of the GIS-MCE method, which can be applied at different geographic scales: continental, national and local. The resulting maps provide decision support tools for implementation of disease surveillance and control measures, thus contributing to the PPR eradication goal of OIE and FAO by 2030.

Monitoring of Serological Status in Response to PPR Vaccination in the Goat Population of Parbat, Baglung and Myagdi District of Nepal

Peste des Petits ruminants (PPR) is a highly contagious trans-boundary animal disease associated with 100% morbidity and 80-90% mortality in goat herds. The study was carried out to assess the immune status against PPRV in unvaccinated and post vaccinated flock as well as immune response as it relates to age, sex and breed using a homologous tissue culture PPR vaccine produced by National Vaccine Production Laboratory, Kathmandu, Nepal. A total 276 blood samples were randomly collected from different regions of Parbat, Baglung and Myagdi districts with a population of 0.0189 million goats. Out of these, 214 goats were vaccinated one month earlier and 62 were unvaccinated. PPR antibody was detected by using competitive enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (c-ELISA) (ID Screen, PPR competition test kit, IDvet France). Of the unvaccinated goats, 25.8% (16/62) were sero-positive suggesting prior exposure to PPRV. In the vaccinated goats, 75.2% (161/214) were sero-positive and 2.8% (6/214) animals were doubtful, suggesting a significant proportion failed to respond to vaccination. The competition percentage (S/N%±SD) of post-immunization (49.19±32.19) were significantly (p<0.01) lower in comparison to the respective unvaccinated mean titre (75.76±35.51). There is no significant effect of age, sex or breed on the antibody titre value in PPR vaccinated animals. The sero-prevalence of PPR in unvaccinated animals suggested that these flocks are in high susceptibility to PPR outbreak and needs an implementation of control measures to reduce economic losses. Vaccination will increase the proportion of animals with a protective antibody level, however more investigation needs to be done to determine why almost one-quarter of animals failed to seroconvert to vaccination. Further detailed study is needed to find out the risk factors responsible for low prevalence of antibody against PPRV in the immunized flock.

Post-vaccination herd immunity against peste des petits ruminants and inter-vaccination population turnover in small ruminant flocks in northwest Ethiopia

Vaccination is the main tool for control of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) because of the availability of effective and safe vaccines that provide long lasting protection. However vaccination campaigns may not always provide sufficient herd immunity needed to prevent disease outbreaks because of logistic problems with vaccination such as inappropriate cold chain and vaccine delivery methods, and the rapid population turnover of small ruminants. This study was carried out to assess post-vaccination herd immunity against PPR and inter-vaccination population turnover in small ruminant flocks in Metema district, northwest Ethiopia where frequent PPR outbreaks occur despite regular vaccination. A total of 412 serum samples were collected from selected small ruminants in 72 flocks (average flock size of 33.4 and standard deviation of 30) above three months of age in three kebeles immediately before a vaccination program. One month after the vaccination using freeze dried live attenuated vaccine, 359 serum samples were collected from randomly selected small ruminants in the same flocks. The collected serum samples were analyzed to determine the seropositivity using a monoclonal antibody-based C-ELISA. The pre-vaccination seropositivity of 72.3% (95% CI: 67.8–76.4) increased to 93.9% (95% CI: 90.9–95.9) post-vaccination (P < 0.001). The observed seropositivity following vaccination was above the recommended herd immunity threshold (80%) required to reduce the transmission of infection in the population sufficient to eliminate virus. A survey of sampled flocks six months post-sampling indicated only 68% of animals were still present in these flocks. This population turnover reduces the herd immunity to about 64% which is below the required threshold for control. The high level of herd immunity achieved post-vaccination indicates good vaccine quality, cold chain maintenance and effective vaccine delivery in the district’s vaccination campaigns. The decrease in herd immunity associated with population turnover and annual vaccination intervals represents a challenge to effective control and suggests changes to the timing or frequency of the vaccination is required.

Sero-surveillance of circulating PPR virus and its molecular analysis in selected areas of Bangladesh

Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) is a highly fatal viral disease of goat and sheep. This research work was done in 2017-2018 by executing, surveillance and epidemiological studies to determine present status of circulating PPR virus and its molecular characterization in different areas of Bangladesh. cELISA was conducted to detect the PPR antibody and RT-PCR also used for identification of N gene PPRV. Sera samples and nasal swabs were collected from eight (8) selected villages under Meherpur sadar upazila of Meherpur district on questionnaire basis. Considering two villages as control and six villages as treatment villages. The total 1860 sera were collected at pre vaccination, 21 days, 3 months, 6 months of post vaccination at these selected areas that tested by cELISA and 8035 goat and sheep were received locally produced PPR Vaccine. Baseline study showed that a total of 950 household rear goats in selected 8 villages where number of goats per household ranges from 4.0-5.0. Deworming was done before vaccination in the treatment villages. Pre-vaccination status of six (6) treatment villages were 55.95%, 50.76%, 37.68%, 41.12%, 44.62% and 43.26% in Chakshamnagar, kola, Amjupi, Amdah, Gopalpur and Chadbill respectively, whereas in the control villages (2) seropositive were 40.00% and 42.57% in Doforpur and Mayamari, respectively. Overall 44.90% goats were seropositive against PPR Virus in treatment villages before vaccination. The Sera was analyzed from 21 days, 3 months and 6 months of post-vaccinated goat and sheep from the treatment (6) villages showed the average herd immunity level of goats and sheep rose to 89.10%, 93.25% and 93.37% respectively whereas in the control villages seropositive goats was 38.14%, 43.98% and 35.64% respectively. Awareness building campaigns with villagers have been conducted involving both men and women through the training, meeting, regular visit of household, distribution of poster and leaflet. The mortality and case fatality rate recorded were 7.4% and 18.8%, respectively due to PPR outbreaks. In clinical case, total 59 nasal swabs were molecular characterized by RT-PCR and 41 (69.49%) samples were N gene positive. Among them, the highest presence of PPR virus was recorded at Meherpur sadar upazila 80.77% (21 out of 26) samples was positive. The result of RT-PCR indicates the PPR virus circulating in the different regions of Bangladesh. It is reflected that locally produced PPR vaccine confers sufficient herd immunity that can protect PPR disease in goat and sheep which helps to meet global PPR control programme.&#x0D; Asian Australas. J. Biosci. Biotechnol. 2019, 4 (2), 88-96

Clinical investigation of PPR outbreak and sero-prevalence of PPR viral antibody in different areas of Bangladesh

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is an acute, highly contagious, world organization for animal health (OIE) notifiable and economically important transboundary viral disease of sheep and goats associated with high morbidity and mortality and caused by PPR virus. This research work was done in 2016-2017 by executing, surveillance and clinical investigation studies to determine present status of circulating PPR virus and its detection of antibody level of PPRV in different areas of Bangladesh. cELISA was conducted to detect the PPR antibody and RT-PCR also used for identification of N gene PPRV. The clinical outbreak of PPR, the total 124 samples was collected at the six locations of the country and highest case fatality (morbidity) was recorded at Jhenaidah 93.75% (75 out of 80).The highest morbidity rate and mortality rate was 69.23% and 13.07% respectively. The result of RT-PCR indicates the PPR virus circulating in the different regions of Bangladesh. For sero-prevalence of PPR antibodies of 366 serum samples were collected at different region of Bangladesh such as Chuadanga 47.81% (22 out of 47), Sirajganj 34.21% (13 out of 38), Thakurgaon 48.15% (26 out of 54), Satkhira 56.92% (37out of 65), Jhenaidah 33.33% (28 out of 84) and Chattogram 30.79 % (24 out of 78). It is reflected that the selected areas are highly suspected PPR and need to proper vaccination against PPR vaccine that can protect PPR disease in goat and sheep which helps to meet global PPR control strategy as well as contribute to achieve the two (2) number of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).&#x0D; Asian Australas. J. Biosci. Biotechnol. 2019, 4 (2), 109-115

Cross-sectional seroprevalence study of peste des petits ruminants in goats in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India

This cross-sectional study describes the seroprevalence of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in goats in Andaman and Nicobar (AN) Islands, India during 2017–2018. A total of 392 goat serum samples were collected from 36 epidemiological units (epi-units) using a stratified random sampling procedure and were screened for PPR virus (PPRV) antibody using an indigenously developed PPR monoclonal antibody-based competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent (ELISA) assay. The results showed that the overall 1.28% (0.01-0.03 at 95% confidence interval) and 1.39% apparent and true prevalence of PPRV antibodies in goats in the studied region. Further, a few samples from five epi-units have only shown marginal positive (percentage inhibition (PI) value ranged from 40.4 to 48.0) for PPRV antibodies with less than 30% seroprevalence in all the tested epi-units in the study region. The finding infers that the goat population in the region are generally free from PPRV antibodies, as there were neither PPR outbreaks reported nor PPR vaccination strategies practiced in goats in AN Islands. Further, the PPR immune protection in goats is almost nil, when compared with the mainland of India, where the disease is enzootic with varying percentage of seroprevalence and population immunity is being reported. This is first of its kind on the prevalence study of the PPRV antibodies in goats in a unique niche of AN archipelago of India.

PPR Control in a Sahelian Setting: What Vaccination Strategy for Mauritania?

Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) is a viral disease affecting domestic and small wild ruminants. Endemic in large parts of the world, PPR causes severe damages to animal production and household economies. In 2015, FAO and OIE launched a global eradication program (GCSE) based on vaccination campaigns. The success of GCSE shall depend on the implementation of vaccination campaigns, accounting for husbandry practices, mobility and the periodicity of small ruminants' population renewal. In Mauritania, PPR outbreaks occur annually despite ongoing annual vaccination campaigns since 2008. Here, we developed a mathematical model to assess the impact of four vaccination strategies (including the GSCE one), the importance of their timing of implementation and the usefulness of individual animal identification on the reduction of PPR burden. The model was calibrated on data collected through ad-hoc surveys about demographic dynamics, disease impact, and national seroprevalence using Monte Carlo Markov Chain procedure. Numerical simulations were used to estimate the number of averted deaths over the next 12 years. The model results showed that the GSCE strategy prevented the largest number of deaths (9.2 million vs. 6.2 for random strategy) and provided one of the highest economic returns among all strategies (Benefit-Cost Ratio around 16 vs. 7 for random strategy). According to its current cost, identification would be a viable investment that could reduce the number of vaccine doses to distribute by 20–60%. Whilst the implementation of the identification system is crucial for PPR control, its success depends also on a coordinated approach at the regional level.

Spatio-temporal analysis of peste des petits ruminants outbreaks in PR China (2013-2018): Updates based on the newest data.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a highly contagious disease of small ruminants. The purpose of this study was to investigate the epidemic characteristics of PPR outbreaks in the People's Republic of China (PR China) from 2013 to 2018. A total of 41,876 PPR outbreaks were recorded in small ruminant populations in PR China during that period. Data from February to June 2018 were used to study new developments in the PPR epidemic in PR China. Spatio-temporal clusters and temporal distribution patterns were studied based on PPR notifications. We also used multiple logistic regression to examine the contribution of anthropogenic, climatic and topographic factors to PPR outbreaks. Distance to the nearest road (OR=1.007 [95% CI: 1.001-1.014]), price of mutton (OR=1.904 [95% CI: 1.358-2.668]) and mean monthly temperature in July (OR 1.156=[95% CI: 1.110-1.204]) showed positive effects on PPR outbreaks. Negative effects were observed for number of large-scale farms (OR=0.962 [95% CI: 0.940-0.985]). We also found that observed patterns of seasonality were characterized by peaks in April of 2014. Spatio-temporal clusters occurred in Yunnan, Jiangsu, Anhui, Heilongjiang province and Chongqing municipality. Hunan province reported PPR occurrences every year from 2014 to June 2018. Yunnan, Jiangsu and Anhui province have 56, 33 and 30 epidemic locations, respectively. PPR infections were first reported as the cause of death for 19 wild bharals in Qinghai province in 2018. All of this suggests that domestic trading of sheep and goats may be closely related to the spread of PPR. Prophylactic immunization in suspected animal populations or areas is recommended for the control of PPR and wild small ruminants should be monitored. Results presented here provide improved knowledge about PPR dynamics in PR China, which could be helpful in designing more effective prevention strategies.

Detection and molecular characterization of Peste des Petits Ruminants virus from outbreaks in Burundi, December 2017-January 2018.

In December 2017, Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) emerged in Burundi (East Africa) and rapidly spread to five provinces (Gitega, Kirundo, Mwaro, Muramvya and Karuzi) in the country, causing severe disease and killing more than 4,000 goats in the province of Gitega alone. An initial outbreak investigation was conducted in December 2017 by the Burundi Government Veterinary Services and samples were collected for laboratory confirmation. A competitive Enzyme Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay (cELISA: Chinese Patent No. ZL201210278970.9) supplied by the Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute was used to test 112 sera and results showed around 37.5% positive samples. This high level of PPR positive sera in an animal population where PPR infection and vaccination had not been previously reported indicated the exposure of the animals to PPRV. Subsequently in January 2018, the laboratory tests conducted at the African Union-Pan African Veterinary Vaccine Centre (AU-PANVAC) laboratories following a joint investigative mission by the African Union-Interafrican Bureau for Animal Resources (AU-IBAR), AU-PANVAC and the East African Community (EAC) confirmed the presence of PPR in Burundi. Samples tested by conventional RT-PCR indicated the presence of the PPR virus (PPRV). Confirmatory isolation of the virus was also performed. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the virus belongs to lineage III and shows a close relationship with PPRV isolates from Kenya in 2011 and Uganda in 2012. A possible explanation for the outbreaks of PPR in Burundi between December 2017 and February 2018 is presented.

Pathological and molecular characterisation of peste des petits ruminants in Nubian ibex (Capra nubiana) in Israel.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a devastating disease that generally affects sheep and goats, mostly inAsia, the Middle East and Africa. The disease has been declared a target for global eradication. Despite its high prevalence in domestic flocks and its high seroprevalence among wildlife, it is rarely reported as a fulminant disease in wild ruminant species (with the exception of Central Asia). In this report, we describe a severe PPR outbreak in a zoo herd of Nubian ibex (Capra nubiana), causing the deaths of 2/3 of the herd. The clinical onset was acute with morbid animals exhibiting lethargy and watery-to-bloody diarrhea and death usually within 48h. The most consistent gross pathologic findings were hemorrhagic abomasitis and enteritis. Oral lesions and pulmonary lesions were rare. Histology revealed necrohemorrhagic enteritis and abomasitis with myriad nuclear and cytoplasmic viral inclusion bodies. Molecular examinations confirmed the diagnosis of PPR and determined that the causative agent belongs to lineage IV. Further molecular examination showed that the virus belongs to the Asian clade of lineage IV and is closely related to a virus described in Turkey.

Seromonitoring of Peste des Petits Ruminants in goats and molecular characterization of PPR virus from field cases.

Objectives:The study was undertaken with the objectives to perform seromonitoring of Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) antibodies in goats vaccinated with PPR vaccine and molecular characterization of PPR virus (PPRV) from field cases in Bangladesh.Materials and Methods:Seromonitoring work was conducted in Char Kalibari, Mymensingh Sadar, Mymensingh. For this, a total of 50 goats were randomly selected and were divided into two groups; vaccinated (Group A; n = 25) and non-vaccinated (Group B; n = 25). The goats of both groups were again sub-divided into four age groups; (i) 0–6 months (n = 5), (ii) 6–12 months (n = 5), (iii) 12–24 months (n = 10), and (iv) >24 months (n = 5). Blood samples were collected on Day-0 and after 21 days of post-vaccination (DPV), and the sera were prepared. The sera were examined for the presence of antibodies against PPRV by competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. For molecular characterization, nasal swabs (n = 10) were collected from PPR infected goats in Jessore during PPR outbreak (February 2016). The causative agent, PPRV isolated from field cases were confirmed by N gene based on reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), followed by sequencing, phylogenetic analysis, and multiple sequence alignment analyses.Results:In the case of seromonitoring, the results revealed that before vaccination (at Day-0), overall, 44% (n = 22/50) goats were seropositive for PPRV. In Group A, 48% (n = 12/25) goats were seropositive, but after 21 DPV, 96% (n = 24/25) goats become seropositive. On the other hand, in Group B, 40% (n = 10/25) and 16% (n = 04/25) seropositive goats found at Day-0 and after 21 DPV, respectively, indicating that the antibody titer was increasing after vaccination and decreasing in convalescent goats. Out of 10 nasal swab samples, 40% (n = 4/10) was confirmed by RT-PCR targeting nucleocapsid (N gene). Phylogenetically, our isolate (KY039156/PPRV/BDG/Jes/2016) was similar to the other strains of PPRV under lineage IV. However, there was a unique amino acid substitution, where glycine (G) was recorded in place of arginine (R). The strain is closely related with other Chinese or Indian strains. The nucleotide sequence homology by NCBI BLAST search of the isolated strain ranged from 95% to 99% with other strains circulating in Bangladesh.Conclusion:The PPRV is prevailing in the Mymensingh and Jessore regions of Bangladesh. Effective control of PPR in goats may depend on vaccination with PPR vaccine. Molecular characterization of PPRV in Jessore reveals that the virus is differing from the strain prevalent in other regions of Bangladesh and the world.

Occurrence of peste des petits ruminants and its increasing threat to Europe

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a highly contagious disease of small ruminants that leads to high morbidity and mortality, and thereby results in devastating economic consequences to the livestock industry. It is caused by the PPR virus (PPRV), which belongs to the genus Morbilivirus in the family Paramyxoviridae. PPR was first recorded in early 1942 in Ivory Coast, West Africa. In the following years, the disease extended its distribution to other parts of the world and now circulates throughout Northern, Eastern and West Africa, as well as Asia – in particular, China, Central Asia, Eurasia, the Indian subcontinent and the Middle East. The molecular epidemiology of PPRV, based on the sequence comparison of a small region of either the N or the F gene, has revealed the existence of four distinct lineages (I-IV) of the virus. Until June 2018, PPR had never been detected in Europe, with the exception of the European part of Turkish Thrace. However, on 24th June 2018 the Bulgarian authorities reported cases of PPR in sheep in the village of Voden, Bolyarovo municipality of Yambol region, on the border with the Thrace region of Turkey. It was the first occurrence of PPR in Bulgaria and in the European Union (EU). The source of PPR infection in Bulgaria is not clear, it could have been the illegal movement of animals, contaminated materials or humans, e.g. refuges. Due to the increased risk of introduction of PPR from North Africa and Turkey to neighbouring regions, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has recently published a report assessing the risk of PPR spreading in Europe. According to a scientific opinion by the EFSA, the spread of PPRV in the territory of the UE could occur by the illegal transport of infected animals or infected animal products. In order to limit the spread and impact of PPR outbreaks in Europe, rapid detection, movement restriction, prompt culling of infected herds and disinfection measures should be introduced immediately. The control and eventual eradication of PPR is now one of the top priorities for the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE). In 2015, the international community agreed on a global strategy for PPR eradication, setting 2030 as a target date for elimination of the disease.

Molecular characterization of Peste des petits ruminants viruses in the Marmara Region of Turkey.

Recent outbreaks of Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in the Marmara region of Turkey including the European part of Thrace is important due to its proximity to Europe (Greece and Bulgaria) and the potential threat of spread of PPR into mainland Europe. In order to investigate the circulation of PPRV in the region suspect clinical and necropsy samples were collected from domestic sheep (n = 211) in the Marmara region of Turkey between 2011 and 2012. PPR virus (PPRV) genome was detected in 10.4% (22 out of 211) of sheep samples by real‐time RT‐PCR, and PPR virus was isolated from lungs of two sheep that died from infection. Of the 22 positive samples nine were used for partial N‐gene amplification and sequencing. The phylogenetic analyses indicated that the virus belongs to lineage IV, the same lineage that is circulating in eastern and central part of Turkey since its first official report in 1999. In addition, samples from 100 cattle were collected to investigate potential subclinical circulation of PPRV. However all were found to be negative by real‐time RT‐PCR, and also in serological tests indicating the large ruminants were likely not exposed or infected with the virus. The impact of these findings on the potential threat of spread of PPR to Europe including the first PPR outbreak in Europe in Bulgaria on 23rd June 2018 is discussed.