Ostrich Production Research Articles

Effect of egg weight on ostrich (Struthio camelus) chick weight and growth

The aim of this paper is to evaluate the effects of the age of ostriches and month of laying on egg production and chick growth. On a small ostrich farm egg production, egg incubation and chick growth from hatching to 56 days of age were recorded from 2000, when the breeders were 5 years old, until 2002. Ostriches were kept in groups and fed commercial feed. In all, 568 eggs were laid and weighed at laying and during incubation (at 15th and 30th day of incubation), while 353 chicks were weighed at hatching, 7, 14, 28 and 56 days of age.The female’s productivity was calculated assuming a laying of 3.5 eggs per week and ranged between 45% and 48%. The fertility was around 70% with a peak of 74% recorded in 2001. The hatchability of all eggs was higher than 62% with a peak of 72% in 2001, while the hatchability of fertile eggs was higher than 90%. In each year the number of eggs laid increased from March to July, productivity showed a positive trend from May to June, while the fertility and hatchability of all eggs, as well as fertile eggs, was unaffected by year and month. As the hens aged, the egg mass grew constantly with an increase of about 8%. During the first 30 days of incubation the egg weight decreased with the percentages of weight loss around 10.0%. At hatching, the weight of chick ranged between 765 g and 847 g, respectively, in 2000 and 2002. Egg weight influenced the hatching weight showing a linear relationship (R2=0.84). The effect of egg weight on the chick weight decreased as the chick grew. At 56 days of age, only the effect of year is significant. The month of laying did not demonstrate any effect on chicken weight.

The effect of dietary energy and protein levels on production in breeding female ostriches

1. In a study spanning two breeding seasons, we assessed the effect of different dietary energy and protein levels on body mass, body condition, and egg production of female ostriches. 2. During the first breeding season, groups were given diets with energy concentrations of 8·5, 9·5 and 10·5 MJ/kg dry mass (DM) metabolisable energy (ME) and protein concentrations of 135, 150 and 165 g/kg. In the second breeding season, groups were given diets with ME of 7·5, 8·5 and 9·5 MJ/kg and protein contents of 105, 120 and 135 g/kg. 3. Body mass of birds on diets of 7·5 and 8·5 MJ/kg ME decreased significantly in the course of the breeding season compared with birds fed on diets with higher energy contents and body measurements decreased, suggesting a loss of body condition. 4. Females fed on diets containing only 7·5 MJ/kg ME produced significantly fewer eggs at significantly longer intervals, resulting in fewer chicks hatched. 5. There was no significant difference in egg mass, initial chick mass, chick survival to one month of age and body mass of chicks at one month. 6. Dietary protein concentrations had no effect on egg production, egg mass, hatchability, initial chick mass, chick survival or chick mass at one month old. 7. The female ostriches regained their original body mass during the 4-month rest period between breeding seasons, but significant differences in some parameters during the second breeding season suggest that they may not have fully recovered their body condition. 8. A dietary energy content of 7·5 MJ/kg proved to have an adverse effect on egg production by breeding female ostriches, and it may be concluded from this study that a diet containing 8·5 MJ ME/kg DM and 105 g/kg protein should be regarded as the minimum that can be used for breeding female ostriches without compromising egg production.

Ostrich production in the arid environment of Kuwait

Ostrich production in Kuwait is based on individual producers. Five ostrich farms exist and there is interest from other potential producers to begin ostrich production in Kuwait. The first ostrich farm started in 1994. The farm's area is 200,000m 2 with a capacity of 400 birds, brought from South Africa. Ostrich producers in Kuwait focus on breeding and increasing the number of birds rather than selling birds for meat consumption. However, these producers do sell ostrich meat (KD 5kg -1) depending on demand.The major problem facing ostrich production in Kuwait is heat stress, which creates a great economical problem for producers. The other problem facing producers is lack of knowledge of ostrich management and nutrition.Research on ostrich management under Kuwait's environmental conditions is extremely important for the development of ostrich production in Kuwait, not only to provide good quality red meat with low cholesterol, but also to provide Kuwaitis with another species of bird, which would increase Kuwait's biodiversity.

The influence of separate-sex rearing on ostrich behaviour and skin damage

Separate-sex rearing of slaughter ostriches was investigated as a management strategy to minimize skin damage. Day-old ostrich chicks were divided into three treatment groups; a group of mixed-gender and two single-sex groups, one male and one female. At three months of age, because of the large variation in live weights, the birds were sorted within treatment according to weight. Each gender treatment was represented by six replications and each weight class treatment was represented by nine replications. At slaughter, chest circumference, slaughter weight, carcass weight, skin weight, skin area and skin grading were recorded. The only slaughter trait that was affected by gender treatment was skin weight without fat, with all-male groups having significantly heavier skins than all-female groups. Behavioural observations, carried out at nine and 13 months of age, indicated that aggression was more prevalent in all-male groups compared to all-female and mixed-gender groups. The all-female groups had the lowest levels of aggression. Diurnal time-activity budgets were largely unaffected by the gender composition of the groups. Evaluation of the skins at slaughter showed that kick marks on the area outside of the crown were more prevalent in all-male groups, indicating that increased aggression was associated with increased kicking behaviour which led to skin damage. However, because of the location of the kick marks, skin grading was not influenced. Weight class treatment also affected the prevalence of kick marks. Aggression and kick marks on the skin were generally more pronounced in the groups comprising the heavier chicks, suggesting that body weight may have an important effect on hormone levels and aggressive behaviour. Because of the general lack of improvement in the skin grading of the ostriches due to the increased skin damage in all-male groups when separated, it is concluded that the practice of separate-sex rearing has no definite benefits for slaughter ostrich production and product quality. Keywords: Separate-sex rearing, Ostrich behaviour, Gender, Skin damage, Aggression South African Journal of Animal Science Vol.33(2) 2003: 95-104

The Role of Speculation and Information in the Early Evolution of the United States Ostrich Industry: An Industry Case Study

The U.S. ostrich industry was introduced in the 1980s and experienced rapid expansion in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Breeding stock prices rose rapidly and subsequently plummeted during 1993–1995. High prices are to be expected in the introductory stage of an industry. However, the magnitude of prices in the ostrich industry is likely due to overestimates of ostrich productivity and future demand for ostrich products, as well as speculation in the ostrich market. This paper discusses the evolution of the industry from the mid-1980s to the present.

Midazolam/butorphanol/ketamine and the clinically effective dose of isoflurane anesthesia of ostriches (Struthio camelus)

Ostrich production facilities expanded exponentially in the United States, leading to crowded conditions and new disease states that required close examination and, occasionally, surgical intervention. Manual restraint was usually inadequate and often dangerous to both the ostrich and the handler, and necessitated chemical immobilization. Few repeatable anesthetic techniques have been established for ostriches. This report describes a predictable general anesthetic technique for ostriches. Seven adult, domesticated ostriches (three male; four female), estimated to weigh 99.2 ± 6.2 kg (mean ± SEM) were hand injected with 0.2 mg kg−1 midazolam and 0.4 mg kg−1 butorphanol IM in the mid-dorsum. Sedative effects were evident and anesthesia was induced 34.13 ± 1.88 minutes after sedation with ketamine (8.69 ± 0.51 mg kg−1 IV in the right jugular vein), followed by intubation and isoflurane anesthesia under controlled ventilation (PaCO2 35–45 mm Hg, 4.7–6 kPa) for surgery (proventriculotomy, n = 6; neck laceration, n = 1). The laceration subject required a second anesthesia one month later. Temperature, ECG, pulse oximetry, blood gases, exhaled gases and arterial blood pressures were monitored and supported. To assess inhalant anesthetic requirement a simple step-down, step-up method (10–20% change) was applied, maintaining a given end-tidal isoflurane (ETISO) concentration for a minimum of 15 minutes during surgical stimulation and observing gross purposeful head movement. Movement was noted at ETiso 1.69 ± 0.11% at the first step-down approach (n = 8), 1.66 ± 0.09% (n = 5) at the second and 1.78 ± 0.06 (n = 4) at the third. Body temperature at instrumentation was 37.2 ± 0.3 °C and dropped to 35.8 ± 0.5 °C by the end of the procedure. Time from induction to start of the step-down analysis was 80.9 ± 20.0 minutes with a total anesthesia time of 268.3 ± 37.4 minutes. In recovery ETISO for head movement was 0.48 ± 0.06%. This movement was followed immediately by 5 mg butorphanol IV, and provided 14.4 ± 2.3 minutes before the next head movement. The second movement was followed immediately by naloxone (0.01 mg kg−1 IV) and minimal delirium in recovery. A relatively controlled, repeatable method for anesthesia of domesticated ostriches was established.

Critical factors in ostrich (Struthio camelus australis) production: a focus on southern Africa

Ostrich production is highly management intensive. The ability to sustain long term profitability is dependent upon the use of strict management techniques by the producer and his workforce. Important factors include those favouring maximisation of production, elimination of disease, reduction in transport and abattoir damage, and minimising feed costs. Given the rise in the global competitiveness of the ostrich industry, the implementation of best practices on the farm is vital if the producer is to remain viable.

Management of ostrich (Struthio camelus) chicks

Ostrich chick production is highly management intensive. An artificial production system should be able to provide adequate protection to ostrich chicks up to four weeks of age. Factors influencing the successful growth of chicks include the provision of proper housing, adequate ventilation, exemplary hygiene and correct dietary requirements. Inadequate nutrition is commonly the cause of microbial infections. It is important for the producer to do an accurate on-farm cost management appraisal, the greatest variable production cost being feed. There is need to generate more finance for further research on ostrich chicks, and the development of an integrated system between producers, ostrich producer associations and industry in order to maximise productivity and economies of scale.

Processing and nutritional characteristics of value added ostrich products

Two types of processed products, chopped hams (0.15% and 0.30% phosphate on final yield) and viennas (27 and 32% fat extension) were manufactured from ostrich fan fillets ( M. iliofibularis) to determine the suitability of ostrich meat for processing purposes. Cooking losses differed significantly ( P<0.10) between the two types of ham-like products (0.15% phosphate=1.59 and 0.30% phosphate=0.78%), indicating that an increase in phosphate addition reduced cooking loss. Cooking losses did not differ ( P>0.10) between the two types of ostrich viennas. Colour evaluation ( L ∗,a ∗,b ∗ ) of the fresh ostrich meat and processed ostrich products (chopped hams and viennas) indicated significant differences between the different types of viennas. Chemical composition (moisture, ash, protein and fat content) of the ostrich meat, processed ostrich products and similar types of commercially available products suggested that processed ostrich products can be formulated to compete successfully with similar types of products derived from other meat species.

Influence of territorial aggressiveness of ostrich males on egg production of companion female ostriches

Extracted from text ... Influence of territorial aggressiveness of ostrich males on egg production ofcompanion female ostrichesH. Lambrechts 1# , S.W.P. Cloete 2 , D. Swart 3 and A.P. Pfister 11 Klein Karoo Agricultural Development Centre, PO Box 351, Oudtshoorn, 6620 2 Elsenburg Agricultural DevelopmentInstitute, Private Bag X1, Elsenburg, 7607 3 ARC-Grootfontein Small Stock Centre, Private Bag X529, Middelburg (EC), 5900# e-mail:heletl@wcape.agric.zaIntroductionTerritorial behaviour in adult ostrich males, which is most often combined with aggressiveness, is observedto a higher degree at the onset of and during breeding seasons. Territorial aggressiveness is most commonlydisplayed towards other males, humans and even vehicles. During breeding seasons the shins ..

Preliminary results of the effect of dietary energy and protein levels on the production of male breeding Ostriches

Main effects only are presented, as no significant interactions were observed. The starting mass of the birds did not differ significantly between dietary treatments. The end mass for the 7.5 MJ energy level and 10% protein level differed significantly (P ≤ 0.05) from that of the 8.5 MJ and 9.5 MJ energy and 12% protein level. The egg production results show a significant difference (P < 0.05) between the lowest energy level of 7.5 MJ and that of the 8.5 MJ and 9.5 MJ level. There was no significant difference in egg-production between energy levels 8.5 MJ and 9.5 MJ or between the different protein levels. A significant difference (P < 0.05) was found in chicken production between energy levels 7.5 MJ, 8.5 MJ and that of energy level 9.5 MJ. The different levels of protein had no effect on the egg-production or chicken production. Neither the energy levels nor the protein levels of the diets had any significant effect on infertile eggs, embryonic deaths or live chicks hatched.

Preliminary results of the effect of dietary energy and protein levels on the production of female breeding Ostriches

Preliminary results of the effect of dietary energy and protein levels on the production of female breeding Ostriches

The effect of dietary energy and protein level on the production of growing ostriches

Extracted from text ... The effect of dietary energy and protein level on the production of growing ostrichesT.S. Brand 1 , C.J. Nell 2 and S.J. van Schalkwyk 21 Elsenburg Agricultural Centre, P Bag X1, Elsenburg, 7607, 2 Oudtshoorn Experimental Farm, PO Box 351, Oudtshoorn, 6620IntroductionThe Ostrich Industry reached a very low level during 1997/1998. Since feeding costs contributeapproximately 70-80 % of the total cost of ostrich production, several studies were conducted at that stage in anattempt to decrease the production costs of intensive ostrich enterprises. Swart (1988) found that the ostrich areable to utilize fibre components such as hemicelloluse and cellulose. In spite ..

Experimental Infection of Vaccinated Slaughter Ostriches in a Natural, Open-Air Feedlot Facility with Virulent Newcastle Disease Virus

The presence of virulent Newcastle disease virus (NDV) since the 1993-94 epidemic in southern Africa holds major implications for the export of ostrich products from this region. A challenge experiment with this field strain was conducted in open-air feedlot facilities under strict biosecurity measures. The experiment was designed to follow vaccination and preslaughter quarantine regulations currently enforced in South African export ostrich facilities in order to determine the viremia period and immune response under these specific circumstances. One hundred forty-three slaughter ostriches were allocated into three test groups, according to the time period between pretrial vaccination and challenge (1-2 mo, 2-4 mo, 4-6 mo), and an unchallenged control group. All birds in the test groups were challenged by oral, tracheal, and ocular routes with a field isolate of NDV. They were slaughtered over the next 4 wk on nine separate occasions and bled on 12 occasions. Virus isolation was attempted from seven sets of pooled samples from each bird to determine the viremia period and the serum antibody concentrations were measured by hemagglutination inhibition (HI) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) methods to establish an immune response curve. NDV could be back-isolated only up to day 9 postinfection and from only six ostriches with poor immune response titers and corresponding to a rise in antibody levels above an indirect ELISA optical density reading of 0.33. Virus could be recovered only from brain and respiratory tract tissue. The HI test was less sensitive than the ELISA. Immune response curves did not differ significantly between the groups and peaked on day 14 post-infection. From these data, ELISA titers would appear to be a good indicator of the probability that an ostrich will be clinically infected after velogenic NDV challenge. These results also suggest that the current vaccination schedule enforced by the South African Veterinary Authorities results in protective immunity in up to 95% of slaughter ostriches from export approved facilities. The standard 30-day preslaughter quarantine period introduced as part of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus control measures also appears sufficient to encompass the determined NDV viremia period of 9-11 days in slaughter ostriches.

Ostrich production in Zimbabwe

Commercial ostrich farming is an important component of the local livestock industry. In Zimbabwe, domestic ostrich production began in 1985 and, as such, is still a new industry compared to the well-established operation in South Africa (Cooper, 1999a). Currently the farmed ostrich population in Zimbabwe stands at ~ 45 000, while the wild population remains at ~ 2 000. The growth of the industry has been promoted through increases in numbers of birds and the creation of an infrastructure to support the industry, thus permitting the slaughter of ostriches and the marketing of meat and skin (Cooper, 1999b). The industry is presently export-driven, selling mainly meat and skin. It is therefore a good generator of foreign currency, which maximises its earning capacity (Cooper, 1999c). Ostrich production is growing on a global scale (Gillespie and Schupp, 1998), resulting in increased market competition (Cooper, 1999d). This has increased the need for producers to improve their efficiency on the farm (Hallam, 1992). It is only with the dedication of producers that continual improvements in domestic ostrich production practices will ensure adequate and increased breeding success, and the successful raising of ostriches up to slaughter age (Cooper, 1999e), thus sustaining an export market. The Zimbabwe Science News Volume 33(3) July - September 1999, pp. 73-78

Ratite Reproduction

The role of the veterinarian in ostrich production in the future will be to develop least-cost management programs. This article focuses on the ostrich as the only current commercially viable ratite species. Managing a successful ranch involves disease prevention, genetic selection, environmental management, and nutrition.

Ratite Production as an Agricultural Enterprise

The ratite industry remains in the market introduction stage of evolution; basic information on markets and production is limited. It is uncertain when, or perhaps whether, either the ostrich or emu industries will progress to the market growth stage. Until significant expansion occurs, ratite operations are likely to be faced with low or even nonexistant profits. It is the authors' observation that the ostrich industry is making slow but significant progress toward introducing products into potential growth markets. The fact that ostrich products were in demand prior to the ostrich being introduced into North America has helped the industry. The future of the emu industry appears to be much less certain. In the authors' opinion, in order for the emu industry to become profitable and grow, significant promotion of emu meat and immediate resolution of the value of the oil must be achieved. Meat sales alone will not carry emu production as a profitable commercial enterprise. Veterinarians can derive significant conclusions from this information. Currently, ratite production is composed of firms generating losses or minimal profits. South African producers are receiving approximately the same amount for a slaughter ostrich as North American producers. It is unlikely that North American ostrich prices will increase significantly. Prices of ostrich breeders of $2,000 to $4,000 per pair and $400 to $450 for slaughter birds are likely to remain the same for some time. Given that world demand has increased at a slower rate than supply, prices may decrease further. Breeder and slaughter birds will continue to require significant veterinary care; however, the producer will be forced to perform more farm treatments, given the negligible margins. Based on the differences in efficiency of existing operations, there are ample opportunities for veterinarians and extension services to assist producers. Vertical coordination in the ratite industry may evolve slowly in the future, especially in the arid regions of the country; however, economies of size in ratite slaughter are likely to remain uncaptured in the short run, limiting the rate at which vertical coordination evolves. If significant opportunities develop for veterinarians in vertically integrated ratite firms, the emphasis, as with other intensive livestock operations, will be preventative rather than therapeutic medicine, and will involve the integration of nutrition, management, genetics, and the control of disease.

Animal health risk associated with ostrich products

Five diseases recorded in ostriches are regarded as posing a potential animal health threat to meat-importing countries. Newcastle disease causes an atypically low mortality in ostriches: infected birds display typical nervous symptoms but no pathognomonic lesions which could be detected during post-mortem inspection. The vaccination of feedlot birds and a thorough ante-mortem examination are regarded as necessary precautions to ensure virus carriers are not among those animals destined for slaughter and subsequent export. Avian influenza produces clinical depression and lesions can be detected at post-mortem examination. Borna disease appears to affect mainly younger birds, and the virus is probably not present in the meat of affected birds. Finally, there is little evidence to suggest that ostriches could play a role in the epidemiology of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. Cases of anthrax are extremely rare. The importation of deboned ostrich meat reduces the risk of infected scraps being fed to susceptible animals.

Production, fertility and hatchability of ostrich (Struthio camelus) eggs on a farm in the United Kingdom

AbstractThe farming of ostriches is well established in South Africa and is gaining in popularity in agriculture around the world but few scientific data are available for rates of egg production and the factors affecting incubation and hatching. Production and hatchability of over 1200 ostrich eggs on a farm in the United Kingdom were recorded during the 1995 season. Females of breeding ages (no. = 43) were kept in 13 enclosures in sex ratios of 1: 1 or 1: 2 (M: F). Productivity of all ostriches over the laying season was 25·2% although when results from individual enclosures, and from individual birds, were examined higher rates of production were achieved although only one bird achieved her full laying potential. As group size increased productivity decreased. Overall fertility was 78·7% although fertility greater than 90% was achieved by females kept in pairs or trios. Larger group sizes had lower fertility. Mean weekly hatchability was only 24·1% with hatch of fertile eggs being 31·9%. Maximum hatchability of eggs produced from an individual female was 73% of fertile eggs. Microbial contamination of eggs was 32·6% and this was the biggest cause of failure to hatch, although rates of contamination varied between females. These results for productivity are similar to those published for ostriches in Israel and South Africa. Hatchability is lower, and microbial contamination is higher than published information although this is the most comprehensive study of ostrich production yet published. Future development of ostrich breeding programmes needs to concentrate on small breeding groups, preferably pairs, and on improvements in nest site hygiene and post-laying egg management.

Husbandry practices as related to infectious and parasitic diseases of farmed ratites.

Over the past decade, there has been a world-wide increase in the number of farm-raised ratites. The focus of ostrich production remains in South Africa, but other countries are initiating production of this bird in addition to the emu and rhea. Ostriches, emus and rheas are being produced commercially outside their native habitat, resulting in new and unique disease presentations. The authors describe bacterial, viral and parasitic diseases which are emerging in production settings. Biosecurity, together with adequate management and nutrition, will reduce the likelihood of flock exposure and limit mortality in the event of infection. The problem currently facing the industry is that most ratite facilities do not incorporate separate quarantine areas. Newly-introduced birds may contaminate soil and facilities with pathogens such as Mycobacterium spp. and Salmonella spp. Ratites have excellent production potential if producers can profitably multiply and rear healthy stock. The authors discuss the currently-known diseases which may affect the viability of an intensive production facility.