Ostrich Industry Research Articles

Anatomic Study on the Main Male Reproductive Organs of Ostrich

In order to promote the application and extension of artificial insemination technique in ostrich industry, we carried out this research on the structure of male ostrich reproductive organs. The results of systematic anatomic observation on reproductive organs of 53 obsolete male ostriches show that: (1) For ostrich above 2 years old, the testis tends to enlarge in breeding season and shrink in ceased period. When they are mature, the color turns from milk white into the milky grey. With an average body weight 135.6±6.50kg, the ostriches have their testis 678.7±20.44g in weight and 9.6±3.43cm in length on average. (2) For 1-year-old ostriches before sexual maturity, the penis is smaller and short, shaped as a light pink bar. After sexual maturity, the testis shows a tendency of enlarging in breeding season and shrinking in ceased period. For ostrich above 2 years old, the weight of penis is 870±45.63g on average and the length is 30.1±12.45cm on average. The depth of ejaculatory groove is 19.18±3.58mm on average. (3) In cloacae, there is a less cyst cavity at the base of penis. In cyst cavity, there are two 5mm long ejaculatory mastoid processes, which have tubule connected to testis respectively. By systematic anatomic observation, constructions of ostrich reproductive organs were carefully observed, thus the further research on artificial insemination technique in ostrich could be promoted.

Living with disease? Biosecurity and avian influenza in ostriches

This paper is about an avian influenza outbreak in South Africa’s commercial ostrich industry. The outbreak was managed according to international best practice and led to the destruction of 30,000 ostriches in two of South Africa’s provinces. However, the industry has a long history of managing low pathogenic avian influenza outbreaks in a different way. We use the 2004 outbreak and earlier approaches to managing disease to shed light on recent debates on how we might live differently with livestock diseases. The paper is based on in-depth interviews with farmers, veterinarians, scientists and agriculture officials.

Phylogenetic Analysis of Influenza A Viruses (H6N8, H1N8, H4N2, H9N2, H10N7) Isolated from Wild Birds, Ducks, and Ostriches in South Africa from 2007 to 2009

Influenza A strains emerging from wild birds are a constant threat to South Africa's valuable ostrich industry. In 2004 and again in 2006, low pathogenicity avian influenza H5N2 strains introduced from a wild bird reservoir mutated in ostriches to high pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI), with serious economic consequences and export bans imposed by the European Union. Although no outbreaks of notifiable avian influenza have occurred in South Africa since 2006, the H9N2 virus caused a localized outbreak where ostriches displayed symptoms of green urine, depression, and mild morbidity. Most recently, an outbreak of H10N7 in farmed Pekin ducks (Anas platyrhynchos domestica) caused increased mortalities, but this was exacerbated by a secondary Escherichia coli infection, because an intravenous pathogenicity index of 0.00 was recorded. Each of the eight gene segments of the five strains isolated from 2007 to 2009 from farmed ostriches in the Oudtshoorn region (H6N8, H9N2), Pekin ducks (H10N7, Joostenburgvlakte region), and wild Egyptian geese (Alopochen aegypticus; H1N8, Baberspan wetlands; H4N2, Oudtshoorn region) were sequenced, genetically analyzed, and compared to previous South African isolates and viruses in the public data banks. An H5N8 strain was also detected by reverse-transcription PCR in cloacal swabs from swift terns (Sterna bergii) in the Mosselbaai region during 2007, although a virus could not be isolated. Initial phylogenetic results indicate that H6N8 and H9N2 ostrich and H10N7 Pekin duck viruses originated in the wild bird population that is geographically dispersed throughout southern Africa, based on the reassortment of viral genes from birds sampled outside of the ostrich farming areas. No evidence of internal genes associated with Asian HPAI H5N1 strains were detected in the South African isolates.

Ocurrence of Philophthalmus gralli (Trematoda: Philophthalmidae) in farmed ostriches in Brazil

This paper reports the occurrence of parasitism by the Oriental eye-fluke, Philophthalmus gralli in ostriches reared in a commercial flock from the State of Minas Gerais State, Southeastern Brazil. The two affected birds presented lacrimation, inflammatory reaction and loss of body condition. After physical examination the birds revealed, 17 and 15 trematodes each, only in the right eyes. The economic impact of this parasite on Brazilian ostrich industry is still undetermined, requiring further studies.

Ostrich leather quality: a review

This review summarises the research that has been published on factors that influence the various aspects of ostrich leather quality, a vital aspect to the economic viability of the commercial ostrich industry. The review is divided into three main sections: discussing intrinsic, pre-slaughter and post-slaughter factors that influence leather quality. Only one literature source that investigated the morphology of ostrich skin could be found. The high vascularity near the surface of the skin was indicated in making the skin susceptible to bruising, which influences skin quality, while the strength and flexibility of ostrich leather was attributed to the three-dimensional cross-weave arrangement of collagen fibres. Various studies reported a high degree of variation in quality within and between ostrich skins. The potential of genetic selection for improved skin quality was also considered, and it was demonstrated that most ostrich leather traits exhibited significant genetic variation. Findings on pre-slaughter factors, such as the effects of age, weight, nutrition and management practices, are also summarised. Few research reports on post-slaughter factors that influence leather quality were found. A few studies looked at the effect of storage on ostrich skin quality, but literature on the effect of processing techniques are lacking. Research priorities identified include the development of methods to assess skin quality on-farm and finding objective methods of evaluating ostrich leather quality.

An evaluation of slaughter age on the profitability of intensive slaughter ostrich production

The traditional slaughter ostrich production system evolved mainly around two aspects: producing the optimum skin size and attaining the ideal shape of follicle on the skin. Over time the practice of slaughtering ostriches at 14 months of age proved to be the ideal system and became the standard in the ostrich industry. With a gradual increase in demand for ostrich meat in the past decade, the meat yielded by a 14-month-old bird provided additional income to the producer. However, the cost of feed can affect profitability and, especially so, for a production system over a 14-month period. In addition to increasing feed costs, evidence exists of an increasing risk of skin damage over long production periods, affecting income negatively. A study at the Kromme Rhee experimental farm near Stellenbosch in South Africa investigated slaughter age regimes at 8.5 months, 10.5 months, 12.5 months, 14.5 months and 16.5 months. Data on feed intake and yields of cold carcass, crust skin size, skin grade and total feathers revealed significant differences (P < 0.01) at different slaughter ages. This paper attempts to assess the effect of different slaughter age regimes on the profitability of intensive slaughter ostrich production. Values predicted from a regression analysis were imputed into a gross margin budget analysis and discounted over a 5-year planning period to compare profitability over the long-term. Income was highest at the 14.5-month slaughter system but gross margin of the 10.5-month slaughter age system was highest, with the 8.5-month system second. Changes in the slaughter age regimes in the ostrich industry may increase efficiency in production systems.

Genetic relationships between water loss and shell deaths in ostrich eggs, assessed as traits of the female

The ostrich industry suffers from a high rate of embryonic mortality during artificial incubation of eggs. Data from 34 285 eggs were used to derive 969 female-year records for evaporative water loss (WL), treated as a trait of the female. Heritability was significant for WL at a level of 0.40–0.41 (both after 21 and 35 days of incubation). WL at 21 and 35 days was negatively correlated on the genetic level with chick weight at hatching (–0.84 and –0.81, respectively). Shell deaths did not exhibit high levels of genetic variation (0.06), but were affected by the permanent environment of the female (0.33). Shell deaths were correlated with WL on a genetic level (–0.34 to –0.41), but the estimated genetic correlations were associated with high standard errors and are, therefore, not very robust. Further research is needed to obtain more accurate genetic relationships between traits influencing incubation.

Intestinal development and nutrient utilisation in the ostrich: a brief review

The ostrich industry is plagued by a high level of neonatal mortality among chicks that are under 3 months of age. Although ostrich chicks hatch with a gastrointestinal tract that is more than 10% of their liveweight, there appear to be deficiencies in structural and functional development of the intestinal mucosa (and possibly pancreatic function) that do not support adequate digestive function. There is also insufficient knowledge of the nutritional requirements of the ostrich, which results in the provision of diets that may not be suitable, particularly for the hatchlings. Recent evidence suggests that ostrich chicks under the age of 10 weeks have poor ability to digest fibre. Further evaluations have revealed generally low activities of amylase, trypsin and lipase in ostrich chicks within the first 10 weeks of life. It is not certain if digestive function can be improved by supplementation with microbial enzymes, which are routinely used by the poultry industry. There is still a paucity of data on the digestive physiology of the ostrich and areas of intervention through applied nutrition are still vague. This paper reviews existing knowledge of the digestive physiology of the ostrich and examines the potential of interventions that could reduce neonatal mortality in the species.

Evaluation of subjectively assessed nodule traits of ostrich skins as influenced by slaughter age

Ostrich skins (n = 214) were assessed by 28 participants involved in the ostrich leather production and marketing chain. The participants were from various sectors in the ostrich industry, including producers, skin graders, leather marketers, agents and process managers. Skins were evaluated during two occasions, firstly without any knowledge of slaughter age and thereafter with prior knowledge of slaughter age. Nodule acceptability and distribution for each skin were scored on a linear scale of 1 to 10. Slaughter age, as estimated by the participants during the first evaluation, was regressed on the actual age of the birds at slaughter. The derived regression indicated that actual slaughter age accounted for approximately 46% of the variation found in estimated slaughter age. Nodule acceptability scores generally increased with slaughter age. Average scores of at least moderately acceptability were found only in skins from birds slaughtered at 11 months of age and older. A corresponding trend with increase in slaughter age was found for nodule distribution scores. Between skin variance ratios were comparatively low for nodule acceptability (0.09-0.10, depending on prior knowledge of slaughter age or not) and nodule distribution (0.05-0.06). The between scorer variance ratio was generally higher, exceeding 0.35. Scores for nodule acceptability with or without prior knowledge of the age of individual skins at slaughter were essentially the same, as judged from a near unity covariance ratio between individual skins. A similar trend was observed for nodule distribution score. The need for practical methods for the objective assessment of the acceptability of nodules and ostrich leather quality was expressed.

Factors related to shell deaths during artificial incubation of ostrich eggs

The ostrich industry experiences a high rate of embryonic mortalities during artificial incubation of eggs. Embryonic deaths were studied from data recorded on 37,740 fertile eggs incubated artificially during the 1998-2005 breeding seasons. Roughly 10,000 eggs that sustained embryonic mortalities were classified according to the stage and nature of death, i.e. before 21 days of incubation, after 21 days of incubation, deaths after pipping and rotten eggs. Although infection may have played a role in approximately 1300 rotten eggs, no detailed knowledge of the pathogens involved was available. The remainder of deaths could not be related to pathogens and the deaths were thus generally referred to as non-infectious. The overall level of embryonic mortality in all the eggs studied was 28.5 %. Overall embryonic mortality was affected by incubator, with higher levels (57.0 %) found in eggs incubated in an African Incubator and also in eggs that were transferred between incubators during incubation (38.1%). Overall embryonic mortality also increased in eggs produced by older females. Eggs produced in the autumn had the highest level of embryonic mortality at 53.6 %, whereas eggs produced in the winter had a marginally higher level of embryonic mortalities of 29.2 % compared with eggs produced during summer (27.4 %). Eggs produced by South African (SA) Black males crossed to Zimbabwean Blue females had high levels of embryonic losses of 45.7 %. The embryonic mortality of eggs produced by SA Blacks or Zimbabwean Blue breeding birds subjected to pure breeding was similar at approximately 33-34 %, but embryonic mortality was improved in eggs produced by Zimbabwean Blue males crossed to SA Black females (27 %). Embryonic mortality was increased in eggs that were set directly (32.0 %) or subjected to longer than 6 days of storage (43.5 %). Embryonic mortality was affected by year. The results that were obtained will assist in determining non-infectious factors that have a negative effect on hatching success. Steps can thus be taken to eliminate such factors that may compromise hatching success.

Identification of three novel mycoplasma species from ostriches in South Africa

Mycoplasmas have been implicated in certain clinical syndromes in ostriches and are associated with upper respiratory tract infections. As these infections result in production losses, they are of considerable economic importance to the South African ostrich industry. Although poultry mycoplasmas have been shown to infect ostriches, the existence of unique ostrich-specific mycoplasmas has been suggested. In this study, mycoplasmas were isolated from ostriches in the Klein Karoo, Central Karoo and Garden Route areas of the Western and Northern Cape Provinces of South Africa and identified using 16S rRNA gene sequencing. These sequences indicated that ostriches in these areas carry three unique mycoplasmas and were not infected with chicken mycoplasmas. Phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA sequences of the three isolated ostrich mycoplasmas showed them to be quite divergent and to fall into two distinct phylogenetic groupings. Unique sequences within the 16S rRNA gene of the ostrich mycoplasmas were subsequently used for the development of specific primers for the detection and diagnosis of mycoplasma infections in ostriches. Chickens kept in close proximity to infected ostriches were not infected with these ostrich mycoplasmas.

Veterinary problems of farmed ostriches up to 12 weeks of age: A review. Part II: Chick rearing

Ostrich chick rearing up to the age of 12 weeks is regarded as one of the major areas limiting the expansion of the ostrich industry (Blue-Mclendon, 1993; Deeming and Ayres, 1994). Most ostrich paediatric problems are management related and more study is required to elucidate the etiologies of certain diseases (Blue-Mclendon, 1993). The most commonly encountered problems in ostrich chick rearing include yolk sacculitis, yolk retention, weak edematous chicks, gastro-enteric problems, leg problems, stunting chicks and the fading chick syndrome (Bertram and Burger, 1981; Blue-Mclendon, 1993; Smith, 1993; Terzich and Vanhooser, 1993; Deeming and Ayres, 1994; Ashash et al., 1996; More, 1996). Below are some of the problems associated with chick rearing. (Zimbabwe Veterinary Journal, 2000, 31(4): 95-110)

On Farm Assessment of High Fibre Dietary Sources for Grower and Finisher Ostriches

Feed comprises over 60% of the cost of growing ostriches to slaughter weight. Any saving in feed costs would contribute greatly to the overall profitability of the ostrich industry. Very cheap sources of fibre are available to feed ostriches in Australia. The purpose of these experiments was to examine; i) the role of fibre digesting enzymes in improving the utilization of lucerne silage and ii) to provide information on the role of lucerne silage, lucerne and pea straw in supplementary diets. The first trial compared the growth of ostriches from 32-36 weeks-of-age fed a commercial finisher diet (with and without a glycanase enzyme) with a lucerne silage diet (also with or without enzyme supplementation). The birds on the silage diet (with enzyme) had a significantly (P<0.05) lower body weight (79.7 kg) than the birds on the commercial finisher diet (85.9 kg) after 4 weeks of feeding, but there were no significant differences between the other diets. The silage wasted by the ostriches was considerable and estimated to be about 60% of the total offered. In practical situations birds would need to be given a greater opportunity to adapt to the diet and for the silage to be chopped to 5 cm in length to ensure enough feed was consumed to achieve the same growth as the birds on the commercial finisher diet. For grower birds fed a 24 and 40% pea straw diet and a 20% lucerne diet from 24-30 weeks-of-age, body weight of birds on the commercial grower (57.7 kg) and lucerne diet (54.3 kg) were significantly higher (P<0.05) than the 24% pea straw diet (50.1 kg) and 40% pea straw diet (48.9 kg) at 27 weeks. The poor performance of birds on pea straw diets might result from birds consuming twice the fibre intake and 30% lower energy than those birds on the commercial diet. This experiment was only conducted over 6 weeks. Giving the birds greater time on the diets might have allowed the birds to adapt to consuming higher levels of forage.

The persistence to slaughter age of scars resulting from damage inflicted to ostrich skins during the grow-out phase

Damage to ostrich skins in the form of cuts and scratches obtained during the grow-out phase results in lower quality skins that fetch lower prices. This represents major financial losses to the ostrich industry. The stage at which such damage occurs and its persistence to slaughter age, when it affects skin grading, is not known. In this study we assessed the persistence through to slaughter age of wounds inflicted on the skins of ostrich chicks at ages 1, 4, 7, 10 and 13 months. Superficial and deep wounds were investigated by either scratching the skin with a nail, or by cutting through the skin with a scalpel blade. Experimental animals were slaughtered at either 11 or 14 months of age and visible scars were assessed on the processed skins. The length and surface area of each scar were measured to obtain an adjusted scar size. Orientation of lacerations (dorso-ventral or anterior-posterior) proved to be unimportant. Cut wounds were persistent to slaughter as were scratch marks, with only a small percentage of scratch wounds incurred at a young age not persisting to slaughter age. Mean scar size at slaughter became smaller with an increase in age at which the wounds were inflicted, except at 13 months of age where it was assumed that the wounds had not had sufficient time to heal properly. Deep cut wounds caused larger scars at slaughter age than superficial scratch damage. It seems that both superficial (scratches) and deep (cuts) wounds will result in lower skin grading, irrespective of age of infliction. This indicates that changes in chick rearing practices are necessary to reduce the incidence of skin damage if skin quality is to be improved.

The Role of Speculation and Information in the Early Evolution of the United States Ostrich Industry: An Industry Case Study

The U.S. ostrich industry was introduced in the 1980s and experienced rapid expansion in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Breeding stock prices rose rapidly and subsequently plummeted during 1993–1995. High prices are to be expected in the introductory stage of an industry. However, the magnitude of prices in the ostrich industry is likely due to overestimates of ostrich productivity and future demand for ostrich products, as well as speculation in the ostrich market. This paper discusses the evolution of the industry from the mid-1980s to the present.

Ostrich flock health

Over the last 10 years, the Australian and International ostrich industry has undergone many changes. The lowering of individual bird values and reduction in gross margins for ostrich producers has led to a significant change in the role of veterinarians servicing the ostrich industry. No longer is the major focus on individual bird medicine and surgery. Instead, the emphasis is now on areas such as maximizing chick survival and growth rates, improving feed conversion efficiency, optimizing reproductive performance, and involvement in management decision making to help maximize production efficiency. This report identifies and details approaches that should be taken to improve ostrich flock health and hence also maximize the production efficiency of ostrich farms on which these principles are followed.

Ostrich (Struthio camelus var. domesticus) skin and leather: a review focused on southern Africa

Ostrich skin when tanned forms distinctive and exclusive leather which is much sought after in the fashion industry. Promotion and marketing are focused on its distinctive quill pattern, durability and suppleness. The leather commands a high price by comparison with other livestock leather. The industry in southern Africa is currently export focused with the highest number of tanned skins being exported from South Africa principally to Japan. There are currently many debates on the optimum age for slaughter, skin size being dependent on buyer demand. Skins are subjected to strict grading criteria. Many factors need to be considered to maximise skin yield and quality including adequate nutrition, preventing on-farm scarring and bruising during transport, preventing feather pecking and treating birds for parasitic and arthropod infestations. Stringent conditions during the processing of the skins at the abattoirs and tanneries are crucial in preventing damage and subsequent downgrading. Environmental impacts of tanning are crucial and harmful by-products, including trivalent chromium, must be extracted from the effluent. The establishment of a strategy that ensures improvements in both the local ostrich and skin industry, and in the export market is necessary if southern Africa is to become a global player.

Critical factors in ostrich (Struthio camelus australis) production: a focus on southern Africa

Ostrich production is highly management intensive. The ability to sustain long term profitability is dependent upon the use of strict management techniques by the producer and his workforce. Important factors include those favouring maximisation of production, elimination of disease, reduction in transport and abattoir damage, and minimising feed costs. Given the rise in the global competitiveness of the ostrich industry, the implementation of best practices on the farm is vital if the producer is to remain viable.

Management of ostrich (Struthio camelus) chicks

Ostrich chick production is highly management intensive. An artificial production system should be able to provide adequate protection to ostrich chicks up to four weeks of age. Factors influencing the successful growth of chicks include the provision of proper housing, adequate ventilation, exemplary hygiene and correct dietary requirements. Inadequate nutrition is commonly the cause of microbial infections. It is important for the producer to do an accurate on-farm cost management appraisal, the greatest variable production cost being feed. There is need to generate more finance for further research on ostrich chicks, and the development of an integrated system between producers, ostrich producer associations and industry in order to maximise productivity and economies of scale.

The effect of dietary energy and protein level on the production of growing ostriches

Extracted from text ... The effect of dietary energy and protein level on the production of growing ostrichesT.S. Brand 1 , C.J. Nell 2 and S.J. van Schalkwyk 21 Elsenburg Agricultural Centre, P Bag X1, Elsenburg, 7607, 2 Oudtshoorn Experimental Farm, PO Box 351, Oudtshoorn, 6620IntroductionThe Ostrich Industry reached a very low level during 1997/1998. Since feeding costs contributeapproximately 70-80 % of the total cost of ostrich production, several studies were conducted at that stage in anattempt to decrease the production costs of intensive ostrich enterprises. Swart (1988) found that the ostrich areable to utilize fibre components such as hemicelloluse and cellulose. In spite ..