Orthographic Aspects Research Articles

Graphemic Awareness Development of Polish Learners of Chinese as a Foreign Language

Metalinguistic orthographic awareness plays a crucial role in the development of Chinese language proficiency: writing, reading, and learning new words. However, few studies have explored the topic using qualitative methods. The aim of this work is to explore how the perception of Chinese characters of Chinese foreign language learners changes along with their proficiency. The responses were collected from 43 Polish university students of Chinese with the use of a graphemic awareness test during which participants were to decide on correctness of presented pseudo-characters. The results of this study show that beginners focus first and foremost on correctness of the strokes, the intermediate learners’ attention shifts to character elements and their correct position, and the advanced learners analyze the characters taking into consideration both character elements and structure of characters. It is suggested that the overall rapid development of graphemic awareness in the study group might be due to the explicit instruction. The conclusion can be drawn that the described shift in learners’ perception is a result of them learning to direct their attention towards the critical orthographic aspects of the characters.

Assessing the relationship between L1 knowledge and fluid intelligence in second language acquisition: the case of immigrant students in Catalonia

ABSTRACT The linguistic interdependence hypothesis posits the existence of language features common to different languages. This set of characteristics, known as Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP), is a powerful facilitating agent in second language acquisition. Fluid intelligence (Gf), on the other hand, is the construct that encompasses those cognitive resources devoted to general learning, and its involvement in second language acquisition is unproven. The aim of this study is to determine the direct and interactive effect of L1 knowledge and Gf on second language acquisition in language immersion learners across different linguistic domains. The study analyzed the proficiency of 131 Romanian students in Spanish and Catalan, the official languages of Catalonia. Mixed-effects regression models were used to analyze lexical, morphosyntactic, and orthographic aspects. The results were obtained using mixed-effects regression models, revealing a particularly noticeable interdependence effect in lexical, morphosyntactic, and orthographic aspects, with differences between Catalan and Spanish. Furthermore, Gf had an impact on the morphosyntactic component with similar intensity for both languages but did not moderate the interdependence effect. The study discusses the possible causes of these effects, as well as their psycho-pedagogical consequences.

Defining the structure of the epic <em>Khan Kharangui</em>

The article analyzes the syntagmatic and paradigmatic structure of “Khan Kharangui” as the origin of Mongolian epics. In doing so, through syntagmatic and paradigmatic analysis each meaningful narrative in the epic is traced on the sentence level and consolidated in a chart grouping all these narratives. The theoretical and methodological significance of this study is to demonstrate how to apply the techniques of structural and syntagmatic analysis while studying epic poetry.
 The manuscripts of “Khan Kharangui” from Okin (Buryatia, Russia) and Kyzyl (Tuva, Russia) as well as “Rinchen” (published in Hungary) and “Tod Üseg” (St. Petersburg, Russia) are known to researchers. It was concluded that all the manuscripts of “Khan Kharangui” are originated from one source, namely from the source written in ancient script tod üseg. Since that source was substantially damaged, the other sources are used in this study. The Okin and the Rinchen manuscripts match almost word for word while the Kyzyl manuscript is more literary both in stylistic and orthographic aspects, but some episodes are rendered in a somewhat more shortened form compared to the former manuscripts. There are slight differences in their size, but they are same in terms of substantive functions and structures.
 When analyzing the syntagmatic structure of the epic by means of the functions described in Vladimir Propp’s “Morphology of the Folktale”, the following functions are not identified in the epic about Khan Kharangui: branding (J), unrecognized arrival (O), unfounded claims (L), difficult task (M), solution (N), recognition (Q) and exposure (Ex).
 As for the paradigmatic structure of the epic, it could be analyzed by the method proposed in “The Structural Study of Myth” by Claude Lévi-Strauss. A particular feature in the paradigmatic structure of the epic is that it legitimizes how one ripostes and what the ultimate results will be when the established relationships and attitudes are violated. That is why each column on the left constitutes a premise or condition for the column on the right, and each column on the right becomes a consequence or implication for the left one with respect to the two columns on the right and left in the illustrated chart.

The Role of English in Shaping the Linguistic Landscape in Slovenia

The issue of visible written language used in Slovene public spaces is addressed. This is rapidly changing under the influence of English as the lingua franca of today. The names of stores, restaurants and other establishments as well as graffiti and other signs in Maribor, Slovenia’s second largest city, are examined. Four different locations are compared: the old city center, the city’s largest shopping mall, the Drava riverfront, and the student campus. Differences and similarities with regard to the ratio of different languages used are discussed in light of Slovenia’s language policy. They are also analysed from the linguistic perspective, focusing on lexical, syntactic and orthographic aspects. It is suggested that Slovenia should invest more effort both in the actual implementation of its language policy and language planning so as to guarantee that Slovene retains its status as official and state language not only de jure but also de facto.

Effects of Affix Type and Base Word Transparency on Students' Performance on Different Morphological Awareness Measures

We examined whether affix type and base word transparency explained variation in third- through sixth-grade students' performance on a number of morphological awareness tasks. Third- through sixth-grade students (n > 500 at each grade) completed morphological awareness tasks from the Morphological Awareness Test for Reading and Spelling, which represent the ways individuals may use their morphological awareness to support reading and spelling. Explanatory item response models were used to understand the role of affix type and base word transparency on students' performance on six morphological awareness tasks. For all grades, 73%-83% of variance in students' performance was due to differences across individual items. Furthermore, when task effects, affix type, and base word transparency were included simultaneously in the model, affix type was not a significant predictor; there was a significant effect of base word transparency and task. Specifically, the probability of a correct response was greater on task items in which inflected or derived words were transparent with their base word (e.g., friend > friendly) compared to items in which there was a shift in both the phonological and orthographic aspects of the base word (e.g., attend > attention). These findings emphasize the importance of considering base word transparency when assessing students' morphological awareness skills with less emphasis on affix type, at least for third- through sixth-grade students. Our results also point to the importance of administering a variety of morphological awareness tasks to fully capture an individual's morphological awareness skills. Collectively, researchers and practitioners should ensure assessment items on multiple measures of morphological awareness vary in their base word transparency to potentially capture a range of student performances.

Computer Aided Coronary Atherosclerosis Plaque Detection and Classification

Coronary artery disease (CAD) remains a major reason for increased mortality over the globe, comprising myocardial infarction and ischemic cardiomyopathy. The CAD is highly linked to coronary stenosis owing to the encumbrance of atherosclerotic plaques. Particularly, diversified atherosclerotic plaques are highly responsible for major cardiac adverse events over the calcified and non-calcified plaques. There, the recognition and classification of atherosclerotic plaques play a vital role to prevent and intervene in CAD. The process of detecting various class labels of the atherosclerotic plaques is significant to identify the disease at the earlier stages. Since several automated coronary plaque recognition models are mainly based on handcrafted features, it is needed to design deep learning (DL) models for improved performance. With this motivation, this study introduces an automated invasive weed optimization with densely connected networks (AIWO-DN) for coronary atherosclerosis plaque recognition and classification. Primarily, the Two Dimensional (2D) transverse cross-sectional image with the provided centreline from the input 3-D Computed Tomography Angiography (CTA) image is extracted in three orthographic aspects. In addition, the coronary lumen is segmented on every cross section and extracts the region of interest (RoI). Moreover, the Densely Connected Networks (DenseNet169) model is applied to derive the useful set of features vectors. Furthermore, invasive weed optimization (IWO) with weighted extreme learning machine (WELM) based classification model is employed to detect and classify different classes of atherosclerotic plaques. In order to validate the performance of the superior outcomes of the Automated Invasive Weed Optimization – Deep Learning (AIWO-DN) technique, a set of simulations were performed and the outcomes are inspected interms of varying metrics. The experimental results showed the betterment of the AIWO-DN technique over the existing techniques interms of several evaluation metrics.

«Siftlikom msg f tel opostitha hna rj3 l history»: mescolanze di codice nella comunicazione mediale in Marocco

Based on first-hand collected data, the article analyses a number of code-switching occurrences in multilingual chats among a community of English teachers in the Fes-Meknes region of Morocco. The data are compared with the results of a perceptual questionnaire on linguistic self-assessments and also take into account the orthographic aspect of the messages. The complex sociolinguistic framework of the area vividly emerges, as well as the real and perceived status of the varieties and the relationships between codes. The result is a coherent combination of Standard Arabic, dialectal Arabic, French and English.

Unraveling the links between rapid automatized naming (RAN), phonological awareness, and reading.

It is well established that phonological awareness (PA) and rapid automatized naming (RAN) tasks reliably predict children’s developing word reading abilities across a wide range of languages. However, existing research has not yet demonstrated unequivocally whether RAN and PA are independently and causally linked to reading, nor has it fully explored the underlying cognitive mechanisms. Most existing research has assessed PA and RAN in children who may already have some reading skill, making direction of influence hard to ascertain. To address this, the current longitudinal research initially assessed RAN and PA in a very young sample of 91 English children (M age = 3 years 11 months; SD = 3.7 months) demonstrated to be nonreaders. Children were reassessed on RAN, PA, and word-level reading at 18 months (Time 2) and then a further year later (Time 3). To explore underlying mechanisms, separate measures of reading accuracy and fluency were taken, and reading tasks varied according to the extent to which they required alphabetic decoding and lexical, orthographic knowledge. Path analyses revealed that from Time 1 to Time 2, both RAN and PA predicted word reading, indicating temporal precedence, though there was some degree of reciprocity in these relationships. However, by Time 3, while RAN still predicted accuracy and fluency of reading, PA only predicted reading accuracy. Furthermore, findings suggested that while RAN was robustly related to both alphabetic decoding and lexical, orthographic aspects of reading, PA’s relationship was restricted to alphabetic decoding accuracy. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved)

Analysing Grammar Errors in Malay Language Learning

This study aims to describe the grammatical errors in an analysis of a Malay language course assignment. It focuses on several local students who enrolled on MPU3312 Malay Language course at a public university in Semester 1, 2020/2021 session. The study was conducted on 250 students, using scripts from their group assignment, namely Text Error Analysis Task (Tugasan Analisis Kesalahan Teks). A total of 25 samples of student assignments were analysed and described using Corder Error Analysis Theory. Findings show that students committed 79 types of grammatical errors. Errors in the orthographic (ortografi) aspect are the most common. Preposition (Kata sendi nama) errors and redundancy (kelewahan) were also distinctively found in the writing samples. There were also other types of grammatical errors identified, such as copular verb (kata pemeri), "ianya", abbreviation (singkatan), affix (imbuhan), and word choice (pemilihan kata). The study has brought an understanding of the nature of typical grammatical errors in Malay language writing at the university.

Written narrative of students with and without difficulty in syntactic awareness

Introduction: Syntactic awareness is a metalinguistic ability defined as the child’s ability to reflect on formal processes relating to the organization of words in sentences and to manipulate them. This skill is still little explored in the context of school learning, and its importance in the school learning process of Portuguese-speaking children is poorly described. Objective: To compare written narrative between children with and without difficulty in syntactic awareness. Methods: The study was conducted on 60 children (mean age 9.4 years; SD: 0.9) enrolled in the 4th and 5th years of elementary school in a municipal school. The subjects were divided into two groups according to their performance in the task of syntactic awareness - G1 (children with medium/high performance in syntactic awareness) and G2 (lower performance). After the assessment of syntactic awareness each child elaborated a written narrative text based on a stimulus figure. This text was analyzed by judges in terms of spelling, grammatical errors, use of grammatical classes, and content. The Student t-test (α = 0.05) was used to compare the groups. Results: G2 children showed altered handwriting; greater occurrence of spelling mistakes, mainly of irregular phonographic relation type; oral support and difficulty with nasal markers; short texts with preference for the use of nouns and verbs, as well as difficulties with text structuring, use of punctuation and vocabulary, while G1 used more verbs and pronouns instead of nouns. Conclusions: Children with adequate syntactic awareness were able to elaborate written narratives with greater competence, demonstrating acquisition of orthographic aspects and development of textual coherence.

Assessment of learning difficulties in the category of children with dyslexia

This study is aimed to assess the diagnostic criteria for children with dyslexia. The diagnostic criteria are based on behavioral symptoms that appear in children with difficulty in reading and writing. The measurement of criteria of dyslexia is based on the criteria found in the specific learning difficulties category in DSM-5. Measurements were made of children who were considered to have learning difficulties as indicated by the inability and poor learning outcomes. Measurements were by testing the ability to read and write. Research used a qualitative approach with a case study method to obtain a description of the results. Research subjects were conducted on 65 elementary school students who had indications of learning difficulties. The results on the ability to read and write obtained as many as 28 students who were indicated to have criteria of dyslexia. Materials testing with aspects of phonological awareness and orthographic aspects. The next measurement is done by conducting an intelligence test using WISC III. Combining the results of measurements of reading and writing abilities and the results of intelligence tests are used to diagnose children with dyslexia, based on the criteria for indications of dyslexia taken from DSM-5. The results category on children with dyslexia can be diagnosed using one or more of the categories available on DSM-5

Análisis de la escritura de docentes jubilados del Ministerio de Educación en las redes sociales: Facebook y WhatsApp

El estudio de la escritura de los docentes jubilados del Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia del Paraguay en las redes sociales a partir del análisis del discurso, principalmente en las páginas de Facebook y en el tipo de mensajería de los grupos de Whatsapp surgió como una preocupación, dado que el lenguaje representa las características socioculturales de la persona y una escritura con evidentes limitaciones en el aspecto ortográfico, gramatical y semántico deja mucho que desear y sobre todo genera una descalificación de parte de la sociedad, debido a que se espera del docente un lenguaje culto, correcto y delicado. El objetivo fue identificar y analizar estas debilidades y proponer mecanismos para mejorar la calidad de la escritura de los docentes en las redes sociales a partir de la práctica continua de la escritura. Fueron seleccionados en forma intencional 50 mensajes de texto de ambas fuentes mencionadas, docentes jubilados, entre ellos, ex directores y supervisores. El estudio es descriptivo cualitativo. Se describe la escritura de los docentes desde el punto de vista de la construcción del discurso (organización de ideas, precisión del contenido), la gramática (aspectos sintácticos, semánticos y morfológicos), la ortografía y la puntuación. Se hallaron errores de diferentes aspectos de la ortografía y la gramática, el mayor porcentaje se dio en la falta de acentuación ortográfica y de puntuación, igualmente la escasa profundidad del contenido de los mensajes.

Elaboración de un corpus cacográfico desde la disponibilidad léxica en estudiantes sevillanos. Un análisis para la enseñanza de la lengua

<p>The lexical availability arose with a predominantly didactic character: the teaching of a language. However, most research studies do not include among their objectives the study of the orthographic situation of the population studied. In this article, we part from a review of the different investigations of lexical availability that have paid attention to the orthographic aspects –its patterns of analysis and cataloguing– to propose a common procedure that allows future diatopic comparisons. After that, a detailed analysis of the orthographical situation is carried out from a sample of 400 pre-university students that will constitute the cacographic corpus of the most frequent errors of these users. This corpus will be categorized around four categories –accentuation, letters, morphosyntax and lexicon– and forty subcategories. This detailed analysis of spelling errors will be very useful in the field of language teaching in order to plan and develop materials, which could help solving orthographical problems presented by the users and learners of Spanish, both as a mother tongue and as a foreign language.</p>

Arabic Machine Transliteration using an Attention-based Encoder-decoder Model

Transliteration is the process of converting words from a given source language alphabet to a target language alphabet, in a way that best preserves the phonetic and orthographic aspects of the transliterated words. Even though an important effort has been made towards improving this process for many languages such as English, French and Chinese, little research work has been accomplished with regard to the Arabic language. In this work, an attention-based encoder-decoder system is proposed for the task of Machine Transliteration between the Arabic and English languages. Our experiments proved the efficiency of our proposal approach in comparison to some previous research developed in this area.

An orthographic bridge between Japanese and Afrikaans - the choice of a roman transliteration system

By die saamstel van vertalende woordeboeke tussen tale wat tipologies (en genealogies) verwant is, het die leksikograaf reeds te doen met 'n meerdoelige gebruiksinstrument wat, benewens semantiese ekwivalensie en 'n verskeidenheid ander linguistiese faktore, die pragmatiese behoeftes van die waarskynlike gebruikers in ag moet neem. In die geval van twee tale wat verskillende ortografieë gebruik, word daar 'n verdere dimensie toegevoeg, deurdat toegang tot die klanke en betekenisse van die vertaalekwivalent afgeskerm word deur n sisteem van simbole wat eers baasgeraak moet word. Om die "vreemde" taal meer toeganklik te maak, word 'n sisteem van transliterasie van die teikentaal in die ortografie van die bekende taal dan gebruik, sodat die noodsaaklikheid om die inheemse ortografie te bemeester, voorlopig uitgestel word. In hierdie artikel word die benutting van die romeinse ortografie in 'n Afrikaans-Japannese woordeboek onder die loep geneem, waardeur ook pragmatiese en linguistiese aspekte 'n rol speel. As agtergrond word 'n kort oorsig gegee van die inheemse skryfwyses van Japannees, te wete kanji,1 hiragana en katakana, asook die historiese aanloop tot die ontwikkeling van 'n romeinse transliterasiestelsel (roomaji), waarvan daar verskillende variante bestaan. Die Hepburn-sisteem, een van die roomaji-variante, is afgestem op, en word verkies deur, buitelandse leerders van Japannees, deurdat dit spesifiek leiding gee op die vlak van die uitspraak. Maar ook die Hepburn-sisteem word aangepas by die behoeftes van verskillende gebruikersgroepe, ten einde die interpretasie van die teks fonologies en grammatikaal vir die leser te vergemaklik. Op grond van tipologiese, grammatikale, en veral fonologiese verskille tussen Japannees en Afrikaans is daar sekere keuses gemaak ten opsigte van spelling (veral by lang vokale) en skryfwyse (bv. die gebruik van koppeltekens), wat deur 'n aantal gebruiksvoorbeelde gemotiveer word. Wat die prosodiese verskille betref, het die keuse, op grond van leesbaarheidsoorwegings, geval op die gebruik van klankgrepe van uitspraak deur 'n moedertaalspreker wat by wyse van 'n hiperskakel vir elke woord wat deur n lemma voorgestel word, gehoor kan word.

Representations of Chinese Language Learning in Contemporary English-language News Media: Hope, Hype, and Fear

Abstract The growing body of research on Chinese as an international (or “global”) language examines linguistic, psycholinguistic, social-psychological, and orthographic aspects of acquisition primarily. There has been relatively little critical discussion or analysis of the larger social context and discourses in which Chinese language education is embedded. However, recently sociocultural, discursive, and critical aspects of the teaching, learning, and use of Chinese as an additional language have begun to receive more attention. This study analyzes circulating discourses, ideologies, and tropes related to Chinese in news media, as one means by which information and perspectives are spread by media and by which public attitudes and policy decisions are (recursively) shaped or reproduced. To this end, a large sample of English-medium news reports of Chinese language education in three Anglophone countries was created and analyzed for the years 2004 to 2012. The findings revealed that reports dealing with Chinese education tended to fall into one of several major tropes, which we have roughly classified as “hope,” “hype,” and “fear,” distinctions that parallel existing models of cyclical or amplified media coverage of innovations or otherwise newsworthy events. The sociopolitically and socioeconomically motivated occurrence of these tropes in the media, combined with the novelty of the Chinese language itself, a historically less frequently taught language in comparison with various European languages, constituted a consistent and recurring narrative. Thus, the shifting representations of Chinese learning in the media tended to appear as corollaries or “side stories” servicing the needs of larger geopolitical events and perceived or desired changes in public sentiment. These trends and their significance are illustrated and discussed in relation to Global Chinese.

Individuals with Intellectual Disability Can Self-Teach in Reading

Previous research has suggested that individuals with intellectual disability (ID) underperform in several areas of reading compared to mental age-matched peers. However, it is unclear how they compare on orthographic aspects of reading, which have to do with learning and matching the specific letter patterns in words. The leading approach to understanding orthographic learning is the self-teaching hypothesis, which suggests that orthographic learning is acquired through the experience of phonologically recoding words. The present study was a first test of the self-teaching hypothesis for individuals with ID in comparison to a group of typically developing children matched on verbal mental age. Results indicated that both groups were able to self-teach.

『성경전서 개역개정판』의 국어학적 연구 : 마가복음을 중심으로

This paper aims to investigate the New Korean Revised Version (1998) in terms of Korean linguistics. The purpose of this study is to examine some of the erroneous translations found in NKRV based on Korean linguistic aspects and lay the foundation to publish a better version of NKRV, which would provide a friendly access to its text and satisfy modern readers.<BR> The study comprises three major aspects, i.e. morpho-syntactic, semantic, and orthographic aspects with the results as follows:<BR> First, archaic and modern sentences are morpho-syntactically confounded, which needs to be unified. If they are unified to archaic sentences, each word ought to comply with lexical rules. Along with it, the ultra-honorific imperative ending, ‘-소서’ needs to parallel the honorific prefinal ending, and the humble prefinal ending. In other words, it should read as ‘-시옵소서’. In addition, these forms ought to comply with honorific rules. To take ‘예수’ for an example, the honorific subject case ending, ‘께서’ needs to be rewritten as ‘예수님’. Since Jesus deserves to be honored, the honorific subject case ending, ‘님’ ought to be affixed to ‘예수.’ Thus, ‘예수님’ is preferable. The second personal pronoun, ‘당신’ has no implication of honor and must not be affixed together with the honorific subject case ending. Thus, ‘나’ and ‘우리’ must be replaced with ‘저’ and ‘저희’ in accordance with the rule of humbleness. Furthermore, ‘이르되’ which means ‘to say’ can not be used toward senior hearers. The vocative case ending ‘-여’ is not used in modern times, and ‘랍비여’ and ‘주님’ ought to be changed to ‘선생님’ and ‘주님.’ Differences in the usage of particles ought to be recognized. As for quantitative expressions, ‘한 무화과 나무’ ought to be rewritten as ‘무화과 나무 한 그루.’ The noun formational ending, ‘음’ or ‘기’ conjoined with dependent nouns needs to be replaced with ‘-는 것’ to make sentences more natural.<BR> Secondly, in view of semantics, Chinese characters which are difficult to decode need to be changed to easy Chinese or native vocabulary in spite of translators’ efforts in many ways. Words representing ‘time’ need to be changed to a proper one to enable modern readers to comprehend. Words signifying ‘the disabled’ need to be changed to appropriate ones so that they will not evoke unpleasant feelings. In addition, alternative translation is required as a means of preventing confusion from the use of homonyms. ‘자’ needs to be changed to ‘사람’ or ‘이’ in compliance with semantic change. Lexical selection requires prudence in cases such as ‘외식’ and ‘변형’, which need to be replaced with ‘가식’ and ‘변모’. <BR> Finally, it seems extremely erroneous in terms of orthography that punctuation marks are not used at all. Legitimate (Appropriate) punctuation is required for modern readers if appropriate forms are necessary. Small letters are helpful to understand some vocabulary. However, there are minimal mistakes in word spacing despite meticulous proofreading.

Recent English Loanwords in Slovene

The paper discusses Slovene-English language contact in general and English loanwords in Slovene in particular. The focus is on recent loanwords, where a great deal of variability in their pronunciation and spelling can be observed depending on the time of their borrowing, the channel of transmission (oral or written) and the degree of their linguistic and social integration into Slovene. Sociolinguistic variables such as the age and education of the users play a role as well, as do the differences between the phonological and orthographic systems of the two languages. In addition to phonological, morphological and orthographic aspects of English loanwords, their meaning and its occasional adaptations and modifications will be addressed. Data for illustration purposes will be taken primarily from the media, especially electronic ones (blogs, forums), since this is the field in which various forms of loanwords feature most frequently.

The contribution of white and gray matter differences to developmental dyslexia: Insights from DTI and VBM at 3.0 T

Developmental dyslexia is one of the most common neuropsychological disorders in children and adults. Only few data are available on the pathomechanisms of this specific dysfunction, assuming – among others – that dyslexia might be a disconnection syndrome of anterior and posterior brain regions involved in phonological and orthographic aspects of the reading process, as well as in the integration of phonemes and graphemes. Therefore, diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and voxel-based morphometry (VBM) were used to verify the hypothesis of altered white and gray matter structure in German dyslexic adults. DTI revealed decreased fractional anisotropy (FA) in bilateral fronto-temporal and left temporo-parietal white matter regions (inferior and superior longitudinal fasciculus). Significant correlations between white matter anisotropy and speed of pseudoword reading were found. In dyslexics, gray matter volumes (as measured by VBM) were reduced in the superior temporal gyrus of both hemispheres. So far, our results, based on a combined analysis of white and gray matter abnormalities, provide exceedingly strong evidence for a disconnection syndrome or dysfunction of cortical areas relevant for reading and spelling. Thus, we suggest that this imbalance of neuronal communication between the respective brain areas might be the crucial point for the development of dyslexia.