Orthodox Church Research Articles

Towards the mutual recognition of sacraments betweenthe Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church

The Catholic Church recognises the validity of all sacraments administered in thenon-Catholic Eastern Churches because they have apostolic succession. Furthermore,in Catholic theology, a sacrament can exist when it is properly administered, according to the teaching of St Augustine: “The Word accedes to the element and becomesa sacrament”.The above criteria are also used by the Orthodox Churches of the Slavic and Romanian traditions, which, as a rule, recognise the validity of the baptism of non-OrthodoxChristians. However, some Orthodox question the validity of the administration of baptism by pouring as the Greek word baptisma itself literally means immersion.Not all Orthodox Churches recognise baptism administered outside the OrthodoxChurch. For these Churches the criterion is the maxim of St Cyprian of Carthage: “Outside the Church there is no salvation”. It means that there can be no sacrament outsidethe visible boundaries of the Orthodox Church.In order to present these two different conceptions of the theology of the sacraments(St Cyprian’s and St Augustine’s), the definition of a sacrament and the question of thenumber of sacraments will first be presented.

What happened before the “kremlin meeting”? formation of the soviet leadership’s “new deal” policy towards the Russian orthodox church in 1941–1943

In the article, the author examines the formation of the “New Deal” policy towards the Russian Orthodox Church during the initial two years of the Great Patriotic War. From the author’s perspective, the conventional interpretation of the Soviet authorities’ ‘new deal’ policy towards the country’s religious associations entails the rejection of mass repression against believers (with the potential for targeted repression against hierarchs and church activists) and the consideration of the interests of religious organisations by the Soviet authorities. In the initial two years of the war, elements of the new religious policy existed concurrently with repression. The author examines three pivotal moments in the crystallisation of this policy, drawing on the correspondence of the rector of the Catholic parish in Moscow, Fr. Leopold Braun, and his communications with the United States and the Vatican. The first of them occurred in the autumn of 1941 and was connected with the efforts of the anti-Hitler coalition allies to demonstrate to the Soviet leadership the necessity of implementing changes in the religious sphere in order to address the issue of the USSR joining the Lend-Lease programme. The second occurred in the spring of 1942, when Soviet diplomacy explored the potential for improving relations with the Vatican. The third took place in 1943 and was characterised by public actions undertaken by the Soviet authorities towards the Orthodox Church. The author concludes that the mechanisms of instrumentalisation of the religious factor were known to the Soviet political system; however, the consistent replacement of the repressive course by a course of instrumentalisation became possible only in the context of the military-political crisis of 1941–1942. The forced mobilisation of religious leaders by the Soviet authorities was accompanied by steps towards the church from the second half of 1942 onwards. These steps became public in early 1943, in connection with the collection of church funds for a tank column named after Dmitry Donskoy. From the autumn of 1943, the “new deal” entered the public sphere and became a conscious strategy of the Soviet leadership.

Status and Prospects for Research on Relations of the Polish Autocephalous Orthodox Church with Polish Civilian and Military Administration, in Connection with The Situation Before and During Polish September Campaign of 1939

Status and Prospects for Research on Relations of the Polish Autocephalous Orthodox Church with Polish Civilian and Military Administration, in Connection with The Situation Before and During Polish September Campaign of 1939

Does the Orthodox tradition have anything to contribute to analytic theology?

Abstract A prominent challenge to analytic theology charges that its methodology leads to idolatry. This article explores a response to this challenge that draws upon the Eastern Orthodox apophatic tradition. Apophatic approaches, which emphasize how little we can truthfully say or know about God, are not exclusive to Orthodox Christianity. But these views take a unique form within the tradition insofar as they accord a prominent role to the distinction between God’s essence and God’s energies. The divine essence is what it is to be God, what God is as such, what God is at God’s core. In contrast, the divine energies are properties, modes, or activities of God not included in the divine essence but intimately related to it. Proponents of the distinction have claimed that it can help theorists to navigate the Christian tradition’s cataphatic and apophatic commitments, which don’t always sit comfortably together. This article argues that there are ways of crafting the essence/energy distinction that can also help to address the ‘Idolatry Argument’ against analytic theology.

“Lord, have mercy” – A Psalmic Paradigm for the Prayer of the Heart

In this study, I aim to emphasize that the psalmic prayer חָנֵּנִי יהוה (Lord have mercy) is the early form and the foundation of the Prayer of the Heart. It has been generally accepted that Jesus' prayer, in its established form – Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me, a sinner – originates in the Holy Scripture, particularly in the gospels. In this research, I will prove that the New Testament contains an echo of psalmic spirituality. Those who first invoked God’s name and asked for divine mercy to be poured out on them were the authors of psalms. To demonstrate this reality, I will resort to the Eastern Orthodox interpretation method without excluding the interpretation rigors of the critical school. I will use the latter, especially when I tackle terminological delimitations and identify the occurrences of the imperativeחָנֵּנִי / ἐλέησόν. In this study, I will capture, in a few chapters, how the psalmic Prayer of the Heart (Lord, have mercy) became the prayer of the heart.

Нелегальные связи между РПЦЗ и катакомбными общинами в СССР в 1960-е–1980-е гг.

The article analyses the situation of non-conformist Catacomb Orthodox communities in the USSR in the 1960s–1980s. It examines the problems of persecution by the Soviet regime against the church opposition, the loss of hierarchy with canonical apostolic succession in the catacomb communities, the emergence of various currents and groups, and the emergence of self-sanctification and sectarianism. In this context, special attention is paid to the establishment by the catacomb “True Orthodox Christians” (TOC) from the USSR of secret ties with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia (ROCOR), as well as to the attempts of the clergy of the Russian Church Abroad to regulate the canonical status of these catacomb communities and thereby prevent the spread of self-sanctification and degeneration into sectarianism in the catacomb environment by means of secret care (following the example of the “experience of the Edinoverie”). The situation of the Catacomb Church in the USSR and the restoration of its episcopate in the 1980s are examined in detail. The article is the first to introduce into scientific circulation previously unknown archival sources and eyewitness testimonies.The author expresses his particular gratitude to Archpriest Serafim Gan, head of the Chancery of the Synod of Bishops and secretary to the First Hierarch of the ROCOR for the opportunity to work with documents from the Archive of the Synod of Bishops of the ROCOR in New York.

Clean Monday in Athens, 1800–1940

This article discusses the transformations of the Clean Monday festival and its multiple meanings in Athens over a century and a half in the context of the growth of the city, the advance of modernity, the deepening of commodity relations, and secularization. The first day of the Lenten fast for Orthodox Christians formed part of carnival in terms of revelries, obscenity, and "magical thinking." Moreover, Clean Monday in Athens was a major open-air festivity in which commensality and dance validated communal ties. Various changes occurred in the second half of the nineteenth century: the celebrations were dispersed into the space around the city and loosened their ties to the urban community and Athenian identity; and modernity brought individualization, a reduction of the sacred and ritual element in favor of leisure, commercialization, and ultimately the de-carnavalization of the festival. Clean Monday did not decline but was eventually enriched with new meanings. Its links with folk culture were strengthened, as it was appropriated by various communities of internal migrants. Its association with a boys’ culture of amusements was reinforced by the spread of kite flying. Finally, the character of Clean Monday as a day of contact between the city’s inhabitants and nature and as a welcome to spring became dominant in the twentieth century and has remained so to this day.

Russian Orthodoxy in Spain: a Look through History

In the article on the basis of the collection “Russian Orthodox Church in Spain from the middle of the XVIII to the beginning of the 21st century” published in 2023. Archpriest Andrei Kordochkin, Doctor of Philosophy and Candidate of Theology analyzed the history of the formation and development of bilateral Russian-Spanish relations in the context of their spiritual and cultural component, namely the activities of Orthodox parishes, priesthood on the Pyrenee peninsula at the indicated time. One way or another, the presence of the parish church testified to the strengthening of Russian-Spanish relations. The author of the article, based on a civilizational approach, discusses the spiritual and cultural mission of the most prominent priests who served in Spain, such as Fr. Konstantin Kustodiev, about. John (Shakhovskaya), Hieromonk Arseny (Sokolov). They acted as researchers of the features of Spanish Catholicism, national cultural and religious traditions, conveyed their sympathy for the object of study in publications to the Russian reader and made a lot to strengthen horizontal friendly ties with the Spaniards. A change in state-confessional relations on the 1978 Constitution and the proclamation of the principle of freedom of conscience made the legal existence of the Russian Orthodox parish, along with the parishes of other Orthodox nationalities in Spain. But the issue of their legal status is still not completely regulated, and we hope that the coverage of the issue of the history of Russian Orthodoxy in Spain will create the basis for its full resolution.

The Russian Orthodox Church Turns to the Global South: Recalibration of the Geopolitical Culture of the Church

The Ukrainian parliament’s 2024 law banning the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate (UOC-MP) marks a significant conceptual and strategic recalibration of the Russian Orthodox Church’s (ROC) geopolitical culture. The framework of the “Russian world” project, which asserted a shared civilizational identity between Russia and its Orthodox neighbors, is increasingly untenable amidst the war with Ukraine and splits in the Orthodox world. In response, the ROC has pivoted towards global outreach, notably expanding into Africa. This move aligns with Russia’s broader geopolitical strategy, which frames Russia as a defender of multipolarity and traditional values against Western influence. However, the ROC’s attempt to adopt a global stance and reimagine itself as a universal church, rather than a pillar of the “Russian civilization”, faces ideological and geopolitical challenges, as explored in the paper.

Autocephaly Reconsidered: Civil Authorities as Autocephaly-Making Factors

Contemporary scholars share a common vision of the phenomenon of autocephaly as a virtue empowering a local Orthodox church independently to elect its supreme hierarch and run its domestic affairs without the endorsement of another church leader. While the academic discussion on this subject is concentrated on the canonical and theological aspects of autocephaly, the presented study shifts the focus to the involvement of civil authorities in the promotion and abolishment of this ecclesiastical status. It challenges the conventional perception of such interventions as something incidental or a feature of particular political formations. It aims to reveal that civil authorities have been a constant factor in the establishment of new autocephalies since the recognition of Christianity as an official religion in the Roman Empire. For this purpose, the focus falls on the Chalcedonian Eastern Orthodox churches which have centuries-old traditions in autocephaly-related practices from the Edict of Milan (313) to the end of the Cold War. It also takes into account the different legal frameworks within which civil authorities used to validate new autocephalies. On the grounds of this analysis, the concluding remarks reflect on the impact of this experience on the autocephaly-building process in post-atheist areas.

Connecting Links between Orthodox Christianity and Diplomacy: Interchurch Rivalries and Political Interdependencies

Orthodox Christianity has faced numerous challenges over the years, sometimes sharpening the situation and sometimes being forced by political factors. This paper aims to explore the interconnection of politics and religion by analyzing some of the cases that played a determinative role in shaping the current ecclesiastical landscape: the newly formed schism between Moscow and Constantinople, the role of the Russian Patriarchate in the Russian-Ukrainian conflict, the ongoing efforts of the Patriarchate of Alexandria to maintain the balances within the whole African continent and the efforts of the Patriarchate of Jerusalem to preserve its dominance in the Holy Lands.

M. Gorky and V. Vasnetsov: the Unknown about the Known

A scientific study of unpublished correspondence between M. Gorky and V.M. Vasnetsov and other archival sources has been conducted, which allowed a new look at the complex, even conflicting personal and creative relationships of two major figures of Russian artistic culture of the late 19th – early 20th centuries. The documents found, despite their private nature, raise the main questions of human existence, faith and religion. At the same time, they testify to the deep ideological and political split of Russian society on the eve of the revolution, including its artistic elite. It is shown that Gorky admired the bright talent of Vasnetsov, the artist, from a young age, the pathos of his paintings, praising the heroic strength and invincible spirit of the Russian people. Vasnetsov also took great interest in the young, but already well–known writer – a native of the people. But the correspondence that began between them in 1900 immediately revealed an insurmountable gap in their religious and socio-political views. This was especially clearly manifested in the attitude towards the national genius of Russia – L.N. Tolstoy and his conflict with the Russian Orthodox Church. Therefore, the friendly relations between the writer and the artist, which began in the spring of 1900 with mutual sincere sympathy, did not last long and, apparently, were interrupted in the autumn of the same year.

Agnostics’ Well-Being Compared to Believers and Atheists: A Study in Europe’s Religious–Cultural Zones of Christian Heritage

Past research suggests three distinct major trends regarding the links of religion with well-being. First, religious faith contributes to well-being, with believers showing higher well-being than nonbelievers. Alternatively, it is certainty about one’s own worldviews, be they religious or irreligious, that predicts well-being. Finally, secularization moderates the above, making nonbelief normative. We investigated these trends by focusing on agnostics, who, compared to believers and atheists, combine a lack of faith and uncertainty about worldviews and should, thus, be the lowest in well-being. By analyzing European Values Study 2017 data from 29 countries and controlling for personal variables, we found that in countries of Western Christian heritage, be they religious or secularized, agnostics were the least happy compared to believers and atheists. Religionists, compared to atheists, were happier (countries of Protestant heritage) or equally happy (countries of Catholic heritage). In countries of Eastern Orthodox tradition, believers were happier than nonbelievers, agnostics, and atheists alike—but again, agnostics were the lowest in the less religious countries. In sum, uncertainty makes agnostics, consistently across religious cultures, to be the lowest in well-being, whereas the effect of religious faith on well-being varies across cultures.

Religion, ethnocentrism and islamophobia: the case of Dutch evangelicals

ABSTRACT This study considers religion as a driver for ethnocentrism and islamophobia, but it does so by focusing on evangelicals as a distinctive minority group of committed, orthodox Christians. Analysing survey data on more than 1,100 Dutch evangelicals, covering questions on religious orientations, beliefs and practices as well as various background characteristics, the most decisive religious determinants of ethnocentrism and islamophobia are identified. Results show that an extrinsic religious orientation and the beliefs in Biblical inerrancy and religious exclusivism are important religious drivers for ethnocentrism and islamophobia next to a right-wing political orientation and demographics like education, gender and age.

Some Criminological Aspects According to Christian Orthodox Doctrine - Davit Tsulaya, Tbilisi, 2024 (Review)

Abstract is not available in the article.

Outline of a Serbian Orthodox Doctrine of Righteous War

The post-communist period has seen several wars in regions with a majority of Eastern Orthodox Christians. These conflicts have prompted Eastern Orthodox churches to formulate stances on war and develop new doctrines of righteous war. These responses draw on a long lineage of Eastern Roman and Slavonic traditions, particularly the Cyrillian doctrine of righteous war expounded in the Life of Constantine-Cyril. This paper examines the theological responses of the Serbian Orthodox Church to the wars in the former Yugoslavia, providing a reference point for comparison with the current theological debates and assessment of doctrines of warfare in light of the war in Ukraine. The focus is on the biblical hermeneutics and theological framing of various Serbian-centered doctrines. These new outlines draw on diverse traditions within Slavonic and Eastern Orthodox theology. The paper aims to provide insights into the shaping of Eastern Orthodox positions on war and the theological genesis of justifications for war. The discussion sheds light on the intricate relationship between war and Christianity within the Eastern Orthodox context in Serbia.

MARRIAGE IN THE METROPOLITANATE OF KARLOVCI IN THE LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

In the late eighteenth century, matrimony and marriage law in the Habsburg monarchy underwent changes due to the reforms of Emperor Joseph II and new political and social circumstances brought about by the war with France. These changes affected all Christian Churches, including the Metropolitanate of Karlovci. In the 1790s, Metropolitan Stefan Stratimirović was able to adapt to new circumstances and new laws, even though they were not always in accordance with his beliefs. This paper will present these changes and provide examples demonstrating how the episcopate of the Metropolitanate of Karlovci and its head responded to these new circumstances. It will also point to specificities that emerged during this time among Serbs and Orthodox Christians within the Habsburg monarchy.

Dead Souls

From early modernity, but particularly during the nationalist rise in the 19th century and again after the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russians have been obsessed with the quest for their identity. At the intersection of the West and East, between a nation and empire, Russia has never fully constituted itself as a nationstate, instead understanding itself as an empire searching for its place in the world. This identity search has manifested through the messianic mission of being a "Third Rome" and defender of Orthodox Christianity, or the protector of a "Russian World" as a political project echoing Russian imperial self-understanding. This article examines Russia's quest for identity by focusing on Gogol's troika as a political metaphor of Russia's messianic and imperial destiny, on Carl Schmitt's use the concept of katechon, historically rooted in Christian eschatology, on Alexander Dugin's view of Russian katechonic identity that brings together Russian messianism, imperialism, and nationalism to the eschatological dimension positioning Russia as the bulwark against the Antichrist embodied in Western liberal modernity, and finally, on Vladimir Putin's adoption of the "Russian World" concept, which has become an official part of Russian foreign policy that embraced the "state-civilization" identity as a historical destiny, justifying Russian imperialism, particularly in the context of Russia's imperial war campaign in Ukraine.

Between author’s dreams and client’s wishes

Contemporary praxis of church construction in the Serbian Orthodox Church (SOC) and the client-architect relationship are conditioned by Church tradition and regulations. The main question is what constitutes the essence of tradition and what are the mechanisms of its transmission and change, as well as who are the interpreters —the client and/or the architect. This paper focuses on a couple of rare examples of Orthodox Christian temples built in Serbia based on the awarded competition designs. It analyses the transformations of awarded designs until realization. In the analysed cases, the voice of the client —who is usually personified by the diocesan bishop, in accordance with the internal structure and the Constitution of the SOC— is articulated in a specific and less direct way, through the competition program and the votes of the jury members.

Orthodoxy and the COVID-19 Pandemic in Romania and Bulgaria: Political Turmoil, Informal Networks, and Religious Scepticism

Romania and Bulgaria stood out in the European Union as the countries with the lowest COVID vaccination rates. The article argues that Orthodox churches have played an influential role regarding the ways in which the population adhered (or failed to adhere) to national health measures. In Romania, the Church was divided between official and informal networks of social and political power which led to an increase in the far-right movement. In Bulgaria, the Church was closely associated with the government’s stance towards supporting health measures and, in the long term, political protests became associated with anti-vaccination program.