Online Speech Research Articles

Determination of Civil Liability for Online Speech Defamation of Natural Persons

Online speech has been an important path for citizens to freely express their opinions and disseminate information. It plays a decisive role in modern communication. Due to the platform distinctiveness and rapid dissemination speed, it poses a great threat to the reputation right of others. By researching the determination of civil liability for online speech defamation of others' reputation rights and comparing relevant foreign laws and judicial practices, corresponding perfecting suggestions are proposed to maintain the reputation rights of others while protecting freedom of speech. It aims to promote the healthy development of cyberspace and construct a harmonious and safe online environment.

Running Digital Political Marketing Movement for Election 2024: A Case Study of Pakistan

With the upcoming 2024 Pakistani elections, digital political marketing campaigning has become a central battleground. In this particular context, this research undertaking endeavors to delve into the intricacies and complexities inherently associated with the operation and management of a digital political marketing movement. Employing a case study methodology, this inquiry aims to thoroughly scrutinize successful strategies and potential challenges that may arise in this domain. Drawing upon the experiences of prominent Pakistani marketing campaigns, this paper meticulously examines the utilization of digital platforms in mobilizing supporters, disseminating messages, and engaging in targeted outreach. Furthermore, it seeks to explore the efficacy of various tactics that are employed, including but not limited to content creation, social media engagement, influencer marketing, and data-driven targeting. Additionally, this analysis considers Pakistan’s distinctive socio-political landscape, wherein cultural nuances, levels of digital literacy, and accessibility to the Internet play a pivotal role in shaping marketing campaign strategies. Moreover, addressing the ethical concerns that invariably accompany digital campaigning, such as spreading misinformation, privacy violations, and the proliferation of hate speech online, is imperative. By adopting a nuanced approach and providing a comprehensive understanding of both the opportunities and challenges inherent in running digital political marketing movements in Pakistan, this research endeavor aims to equip future marketing campaigns with invaluable insights and contribute to the broader discourse surrounding the role of digital technologies in shaping democratic processes.

Perspectives of Canadian Youth on Islamophobic Hate Speech on Social Media

Background: Recent high-profile cases of Islamophobia online raise questions about how youth view and understand Islamophobic hate speech on social media. Analysis: In this study, we interviewed 25 respondents who identify as Muslim and have experienced hate speech on social media and 25 respondents from mainstream Canadian youth who are active users of social media. We also arranged a partially mediated online multilogue between the respondents on religion-induced hate speech, especially Islamophobia in Canada. Conclusions and implications: While both groups agreed on the harmful impacts of unmoderated hate speech online, they disagreed on the definition of Islamophobia as the systematic oppression of Muslims and held conflicting views on Islamophobia as a form of racism.

Does pre-speech auditory modulation reflect processes related to feedback monitoring or speech movement planning?

Previous studies have revealed that auditory processing is modulated during the planning phase immediately prior to speech onset. To date, the functional relevance of this pre-speech auditory modulation (PSAM) remains unknown. Here, we investigated whether PSAM reflects neuronal processes that are associated with preparing auditory cortex for optimized feedback monitoring as reflected in online speech corrections. Combining electroencephalographic PSAM data from a previous data set with new acoustic measures of the same participants’ speech, we asked whether individual speakers’ extent of PSAM is correlated with the implementation of within-vowel articulatory adjustments during /b/-vowel-/d/ word productions. Online articulatory adjustments were quantified as the extent of change in inter-trial formant variability from vowel onset to vowel midpoint (a phenomenon known as centering). This approach allowed us to also consider inter-trial variability in formant production, and its possible relation to PSAM, at vowel onset and midpoint separately. Results showed that inter-trial formant variability was significantly smaller at vowel midpoint than at vowel onset. PSAM was not significantly correlated with this amount of change in variability as an index of within-vowel adjustments. Surprisingly, PSAM was negatively correlated with inter-trial formant variability not only in the middle but also at the very onset of the vowels. Thus, speakers with more PSAM produced formants that were already less variable at vowel onset. Findings suggest that PSAM may reflect processes that influence speech acoustics as early as vowel onset and, thus, that are directly involved in motor command preparation (feedforward control) rather than output monitoring (feedback control).

Reduced on-line speech gesture integration during multimodal language processing in adults with moderate-severe traumatic brain injury: Evidence from eye-tracking

BackgroundLanguage is multimodal and situated in rich visual contexts. Language is also incremental, unfolding moment-to-moment in real time, yet few studies have examined how spoken language interacts with gesture and visual context during multimodal language processing. Gesture is a rich communication cue that is integrally related to speech and often depicts concrete referents from the visual world. Using eye-tracking in an adapted visual world paradigm, we examined how participants with and without moderate-severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) use gesture to resolve temporary referential ambiguity. MethodsParticipants viewed a screen with four objects and one video. The speaker in the video produced sentences (e.g., “The girl will eat the very good sandwich”), paired with either a meaningful gesture (e.g., sandwich-holding gesture) or a meaningless grooming movement (e.g., arm scratch) at the verb “will eat.” We measured participants’ gaze to the target object (e.g., sandwich), a semantic competitor (e.g., apple), and two unrelated distractors (e.g., piano, guitar) during the critical window between movement onset in the gesture modality and onset of the spoken referent in speech. ResultsBoth participants with and without TBI were more likely to fixate the target when the speaker produced a gesture compared to a grooming movement; however, relative to non-injured participants, the effect was significantly attenuated in the TBI group. DiscussionWe demonstrated evidence of reduced speech-gesture integration in participants with TBI relative to non-injured peers. This study advances our understanding of the communicative abilities of adults with TBI and could lead to a more mechanistic account of the communication difficulties adults with TBI experience in rich communication contexts that require the processing and integration of multiple co-occurring cues. This work has the potential to increase the ecological validity of language assessment and provide insights into the cognitive and neural mechanisms that support multimodal language processing.

Drivers of hate speech in political conversations on Twitter: the case of the 2022 Italian general election

We study the prevalence and characteristics of toxic speech on Twitter in the run-up to the 2022 Italian General election. We analyzed over 8.5 M tweets shared by 450k unique users and employed a machine learning classifier to estimate the toxicity score of their messages. We found that supporters of different political coalitions exhibit varying levels of toxic speech, sending between 6-8% of toxic messages overall. Notably, Centre-Left politicians received more toxic messages on average, with the largest target of hate receiving over 15,000 toxic replies. We employed Generalized Linear Models to study factors that drive hate speech to political targets, finding that, importantly, politicians employing more abusive and harmful language are also more likely to attract more inflammatory speech. Our findings underscore the critical need for targeted interventions to address hate speech online, fostering healthier dialogue and safeguarding democratic discourse.

The effect of different visual feedback interfaces of music training games on speech rehabilitation in hearing-impaired children: An fNIRS study

Singing plays a critical role in enhancing musicality, sound discrimination, and attention, and proves advantageous for speech rehabilitation in children with hearing impairments. Computer-based training games are well-suited to the learning behaviors of children, with substantial evidence suggesting that music training augments speech training capabilities in this demographic. Despite this, there is a lack of detailed exploration into the design of interactive online music training interfaces tailored for these needs. This study investigates brain activation changes using two visual feedback singing games, analyzed through functional near-infrared spectroscopy: a serious game (SG) and an entertainment game (EG) with visually enhanced feedback. It also assesses the efficacy of home-based music training software for speech rehabilitation.Methods involved recording oxygenated hemoglobin concentration (Delta [HbO]) signals from the prefrontal cortex, motor cortex, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe in 21 children (average age: 9.3 ± 1.9 years) during two singing interface experiments. Subjects also completed the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) questionnaire post-experiment.Main results showed that brain regions, particularly the temporal lobe, exhibited stronger and more pronounced activation signals with the SG interface compared to the EG, suggesting that SG is more effective for speech system rehabilitation. The Intrinsic Motivation Scale results revealed higher acceptability for SG than for EG. This study provides insights into designing online speech rehabilitation products for children with hearing impairment, advocating for better interactive training methods from a neuroscience perspective.

Situated learning in the translation class: exploring the effects of engaging college students in an online crowdsourcing translation project

ABSTRACT In the recent decade, project-based learning has gained popularity in translator training, with its foundation rooted in the situated learning theory. Advancements in digital technology have opened up new learning opportunities for both teachers and students in translation classrooms. One such opportunity lies in the realm of online communities comprising non-professional translators who create subtitles for videos, movies, TV shows, and various audiovisual materials. This study focuses on a project that integrates the teaching and learning of English speech subtitling within an online translation programme operating on a crowdsourcing model. In contrast to previous studies, which typically emphasised student-centred approaches with minimal teacher involvement, undergraduate students in this study underwent a comprehensive five-week training in subtitling. This training involved the use of instructor-designed worksheets prior to students’ active participation in online speech subtitling. The results of pre- and post-tests demonstrated significant improvements in the students’ subtitling knowledge and skills. Additionally, feedback from a self-report questionnaire and interviews with selected students highlighted numerous advantages associated with the teacher-guided and collaborative group approach to learning subtitling.

Social Media Users’ Motives for (Not) Engaging With Hate Speech: An Explorative Investigation

Despite extensive research on what causes social media users to recognize hate speech and what motivates their reactions to it, little is known about a crucial intermediate step that leads to users’ engagement or non-engagement with hate speech online. In our study, drawing on the uses and gratifications approach, we theoretically derived motives representing affective and entertainment, personal identity and social-integrative as well as cognitive dimensions for social media users to engage or not engage with hate speech. To empirically investigate those motives, we conducted a quota-based online survey of adult social media users in Germany ( N = 4,020) and subjected the responses to exploratory factor analysis. We found that a range of personal and social gratifications, far beyond simple expressions of approval or disapproval, encourage social media users to engage with hate speech online, whereas intentions to protect oneself and others from potential harm discourage such behavior.

Decentralized social networks and the future of free speech online

Decentralized social networks like Mastodon and BlueSky are trending topics that have drawn much attention and discussion in recent years. By devolving powers from the central node to the end users, decentralized social networks aim to cure existing pathologies on the centralized platforms and have been viewed by many as the future of the Internet. This article critically and systematically assesses the decentralization project's prospect for communications online. It uses normative theories of free speech to examine whether and how the decentralization design could facilitate users’ freedom of expression online. The analysis shows that both promises and pitfalls exist, highlighting the importance of value-based design in this area. Two most salient issues for the design of the decentralized networks are: how to balance the decentralization ideal with constant needs of centralization on the network, and how to empower users to make them truly capable of exercising their control. The article then uses some design examples, such as the shared blocklist and the opt-in search function, to illustrate the value considerations underlying the design choices. Some tentative proposals for law and policy interventions are offered to better facilitate the design of the new network. Rather than providing clear answers, the article seeks to map the value implications of the design choices, highlight the stakes, and point directions for future research.

Researching hate speech online: Exploring the potential and limitations of Facebook as a survey tool in Africa

The reasons driving users to flag/report online hate and social media mis/disinformation in Africa—or, conversely, why they choose not to. We conducted surveys with social media users in several African countries to gauge their definitional understandings of online hate and mis/disinformation; their awareness of content moderation processes, including the role of artificial intelligence (AI); and their engagement with flagging/reporting online content. The challenge, however, was how to conduct survey research in difficult-to-reach places, some of which are affected by violent conflict, and within a limited budget. Given that our aim was to reach social media users, we used Facebook to advertise our survey, drawing on the breadth of research on using the platform as a research tool and the fact it has a large user base in the targeted countries. In this article, we explore the practicalities, challenges, and limitations of Facebook as a tool for survey research in African countries.

Navigating hate speech and content moderation under the DSA: insights from ECtHR case law

ABSTRACT The dissemination of hate speech online necessitates forceful content moderation to protect individuals and democratic values, without undue infringement of freedom of expression and the right to access information. In Europe, recent regulatory measures like the Digital Services Act (DSA) address the amplification of harmful content on social media, and place responsibilities on Very Large Online Platforms to counter societal risks, such as hate speech. The DSA mandates that platforms balance commercial interests with protecting user rights and safety, necessitating nuanced moderation strategies. However, both automated and human moderation face challenges in accurately identifying and countering hate speech. The European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) and its interpretation by the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) provide essential guidance for navigating how to counter hate speech and also protect freedom of expression. This article aims to contribute to the understanding the emerging landscape of platform regulation and how the demands in the DSA can be better understood and operationalized regarding moderation of hate speech, in light of ECtHR case law.

Ambiguous Threats

In a recent case, a Facebook user in Iran posted “death to Khamenei”, which the platform removed as a violation of its policy against threats and incitement. Facebook ultimately overturned the decision on the grounds that the speech, while contravening its rules, was newsworthy. Yet the company’s Oversight Board offered a distinct rationale for allowing the post: “death to Khamenei” wasn’t a threat or an incitement at all, but rather a rhetorical expression of criticism, disdain, or disgust. Who was right? Drawing on longstanding distinctions in the philosophy of language, we argue that the answer depends on whether platform rules should primarily target an utterance’s illocutionary force or instead its perlocutionary effects. Using this case study to trace broader lessons for the proper governance of online speech, we argue that platforms’ rules should primarily target illocutionary force, only considering perlocutionary effects in cases where illocutionary force is ambiguous.

Hate Speech and Human Rights: A Social Justice Perspective in Pakistan

This paper explores hate speech issues through the lens of human rights and social justice, focusing particularly on its impact on minority communities in Pakistan. It examines how hate speech undermines their human rights and leads to a denial of social justice, eroding the social fabric and perpetuating discrimination. The paper begins with a discussion of the current global context and then delves into the socio-political landscape of Pakistan, presenting relevant background information. It highlights that Pakistan, marked by religious, cultural, ethnic, and linguistic diversity, has struggled to fully embrace this diversity. Within this context, the article specifically studies the issue of online hate speech directed at minority communities and its detrimental effects on their well-being and societal integration. The paper concludes with comprehensive recommendations to tackle hate speech both online and offline, aiming to promote a more inclusive and just society for all, where every individual’s rights are respected and protected.

Examining the Use of Address Terms among Postgraduate Students in an Online Speech Community and Their Implication

This paper examined the terms of address as an important part of verbal behavior through which the behavior, norms and practices of a society can be identified. As a classic study in sociolinguistics, Brown and Gilman (1960) pronominal address system highlighted the semantic power and solidarity in relation to address terms. Since then, several studies have emerged on address terms in various social domains notably academia, religion, politics and many more. However, most of these studies did not give much consideration to online speech communities. This study therefore focuses on sociolinguistic analysis of address terms among postgraduate students in an online speech community using ethnographic approach. The study selected three (3) postgraduate online groups from the University of Cape Coast. One hundred and fifty chats (150) were collected from each group and studied to reveal the key address terms used by the students to address each and also the factors influencing the choice of the address terms. The study revealed that the key address terms used among postgraduate students are personal names, descriptive phrases and titles. Again, the study revealed the following as the factors influencing the choice of address terms: situational and socio-cultural factors, level of formality, innovativeness and playfulness, gender and age variations.

Exploring the Mechanism of Adult Users' Cyber-Aggression Against Adolescents: The Roles of Online Communication, Age Group Identity, and Online Moral Disengagement.

The increasing prevalence of adults' prejudice against adolescents on the Internet could cause opposing attitudes and even online aggression against teenagers. Yet, such age discrimination is less challenged compared to other social biases in cyberspace. Employing a social identity approach, this study aims to explore how features of online communication, teen-related personal experiences, and the dual identity of adult aggressors influence online moral disengagement (OMD), motives, and behaviors for cyber-aggression. We conducted an online survey of 767 Chinese adults in May 2023. The results demonstrated that perceived controllability of online speech, negative teen-related online experiences, and generation-based bias were positively associated with OMD. Next, adult respondents' self-serving motives positively predicted moderate and severe cyber-aggression, while educational motives only increased moderate cyber-aggression. Mediation analysis revealed that generation-based bias was the sole significant factor that amplified OMD, self-serving motives, educational motives, and cyber-aggression behaviors. In contrast, the effects of lifestage-based bias were insignificant. Our findings yield insights into individuals' moral transgressions in digital environments and shed light on the dynamics of the identity of adult aggressors in age-based discrimination. This study suggests that empathy from adults and age-appropriate prevention by online platforms are crucial to address online aggression against young generations.

A mobile application and system architecture for online speech training in Portuguese: design, development, and evaluation of SofiaFala

A mobile application and system architecture for online speech training in Portuguese: design, development, and evaluation of SofiaFala

Does pre-speech auditory modulation reflect processes related to feedback monitoring or speech movement planning?

Previous studies have revealed that auditory processing is modulated during the planning phase immediately prior to speech onset. To date, the functional relevance of this pre-speech auditory modulation (PSAM) remains unknown. Here, we investigated whether PSAM reflects neuronal processes that are associated with preparing auditory cortex for optimized feedback monitoring as reflected in online speech corrections. Combining electroencephalographic PSAM data from a previous data set with new acoustic measures of the same participants' speech, we asked whether individual speakers' extent of PSAM is correlated with the implementation of within-vowel articulatory adjustments during /b/-vowel-/d/ word productions. Online articulatory adjustments were quantified as the extent of change in inter-trial formant variability from vowel onset to vowel midpoint (a phenomenon known as centering). This approach allowed us to also consider inter-trial variability in formant production and its possible relation to PSAM at vowel onset and midpoint separately. Results showed that inter-trial formant variability was significantly smaller at vowel midpoint than at vowel onset. PSAM was not significantly correlated with this amount of change in variability as an index of within-vowel adjustments. Surprisingly, PSAM was negatively correlated with inter-trial formant variability not only in the middle but also at the very onset of the vowels. Thus, speakers with more PSAM produced formants that were already less variable at vowel onset. Findings suggest that PSAM may reflect processes that influence speech acoustics as early as vowel onset and, thus, that are directly involved in motor command preparation (feedforward control) rather than output monitoring (feedback control).

Neural semantic effects of tone accents.

This study investigated whether the brain utilizes morphologically induced tones for semantic processing during online speech perception. An auditory comprehension task was conducted while measuring event-related potentials (ERPs). The study tested whether a discrepancy between contextual expectations and the tonal realizations of the target word would yield an N400 effect, indicative of semantic processing difficulty. An N400 effect was observed, reflecting integration difficulty due to semantic anomalies caused by incongruent tones. Additionally, the ERPs in the congruent conditions were modulated by the cohort entropy of the target word indicating lexical competition. The late negativity observed in this study encompasses both the N400 and preactivation negativity. This overlap underscores the brain's potential for rapidly connecting form and meaning from different sources within the word, relying on statistically based prediction in semantic processing.

The Bypass Strategy: platforms, the Online Safety Act and future of online speech

ABSTRACT In this paper, we argue that the Online Safety Act 2023 and Ofcom’s guidance incentivise online platforms to adopt a ‘Bypass Strategy’, where they create and enforce content moderation rules that are broader than existing criminal law to bypass judgements of illegal content. This strategy aims to avoid complex legal interpretations of criminal intent and potential defences but would be unfeasible considering the volume of content on social media platforms and incompatible with automated moderation tools. We argue, however, that the Bypass Strategy, driven by the Act’s focus on illegal content and by the lack of clarity in Ofcom’s proposed guidance, poses a significant threat to users’ freedom of expression and incentivises overremoval of legitimate speech. We offer insights that could help Ofcom to improve its guidance on how platforms should interpret such duties on moderating content and might mitigate this risk within the constraints of the Act.