Off-farm Income Research Articles

Determinants of farmers’ adaptation strategies to climate change impacts in northwestern Ethiopia

Climate change and related extreme events have become global challenges in ensuring sustainable development. This affects water availability and agricultural production, particularly in developing countries. This study explored the factors affecting farmers' adaptation mechanisms to climate change in different agro-ecological zones of the Bure Zuria district of northwestern Ethiopia. A household survey, focus group discussion, key informant interviews, and observations were used to acquire primary data on farmers' socioeconomic and demographic characteristics, adaptation strategies and potential barriers. About 190 randomly selected households from different agro-ecologies were included in this study. Moreover, reports and published sources were used to acquire secondary data. Data were analyzed using a multinomial logit regression model and descriptive statistics. The results indicated that soil and water conservation practices (26.7%) were the main adaptation responses in highland agro-ecology. In contrast, supplementary feeding for livestock (56%) was the main adaptation response to the adverse effects of climate extremes in lowland agro-ecology. Farmers identified land scarcity (25.84%) and shortage of water for irrigation (28.57%) as major barriers to adaptation in the highland and lowland agro-ecologies, respectively. In addition, agro-ecology, education level, age, active labor, number of livestock (TLU), off-farm income, frequency of extension contacts, credit access, and market access were decisive factors affecting farmers’ adaptation mechanisms to withstand extreme climatic events. In conclusion, soil and water conservation practices are more practiced in highland areas than in lowland areas. Because the steepness of farmlands and erodible soils increase farmers' vulnerability to flood hazards in highland areas than in lowland areas. It is suggested that investigations on the climate change-induced gender-differentiated impacts shall be conducted to design all-inclusive and effective responses.

Determinants of Rural Households’ Intensity of Flood Adaptation in the Fogera Rice Plain, Ethiopia: Evidence from Generalised Poisson Regression

Effective adaptation to flooding risk depends on careful identification and combinations of strategies which, in turn, depends on knowledge of the determinants of flood adaptation. The main objective of this study was to examine the determinants of rural households’ intensity of flood adaptation in the Fogera rice plain, Ethiopia. A three-stage stratified sampling technique was employed to select 337 sample household heads. Primary data was collected through a structured household survey. Data analysis was accompanied by a descriptive and generalised Poisson regression (GP) model. The descriptive analysis showed that households adopted an average of three (3) flood adaptation strategies. The generalised Poisson regression further revealed that family size, availability of off-farm income, previous flood experience, access to credit, access to extension services, and an early warning information system statistically significantly increase flood adaptation strategies’ average number (intensity). However, the age of the household head negatively and significantly influences the intensity of flood adaptation. More specifically, households with off-farm income, previous flood experience, access to credit, access to extension, and an early warning information system were 20%, 94%, 13%, 30%, and 29% more likely to adopt more flood adaptation strategies, respectively. The findings call for immediate response and coordination among stakeholders to design strategies that enhance households’ livelihood, access to credit, access to extension services, and early warning information systems for effective flood adaptation in the study area.

Benefits of Agricultural Mechanization in Rice Farming of Chitwan, Nepal

A study was conducted in the Chitwan district to investigate the benefits of mechanization in rice farming. The study aimed to determine the rate of adoption of mechanization in rice farming in Chitwan, analyze farmers’ preferences towards mechanization for rice farming, and identify constraints during the implementation of farm machinery. A sample of 150 rice-growing commercial farmers in Chitwan was selected using a simple random sampling method from five municipalities. Descriptive analysis was used to study different socio-economic, demographic, and physical factors related to mechanization in rice farming. Primary data were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire, while secondary data were obtained through a review of literature from various sources. The results showed that farmers prefer Mould Board Plough and Cultivator as primary tillage operations. Labor scarcity was the major reason for adopting mechanization in rice farming, and some farmers preferred mechanization due to the unavailability of traditional tools in the study area. The reduction of human drudgery by mechanization was found to be moderate as human labor was not entirely replaced by machines. A binary log it regression model was used to determine the benefits of mechanization among paddy cultivators. The study found that the benefits of mechanization included an increase in total annual income, income from rice farming, off-farm income, total area under rice cultivation, improvement in living standards, and a reduction in the cost of production. The major problems in the implementation of mechanization in rice farming were ranked, and low income was identified as the main problem, followed by low subsidy.

Food security and coping strategies for COVID-19 disruptions among farming households in Cameroon

The uncertainty of a secure next meal has continued to bedevil global economies and undermine households’ well-being. The COVID-19 pandemic has affected farming households’ livelihood through diverse pressures on global food systems. In this study, we assessed the association between the COVID-19 shocks and farming households’ food and nutrition security and the different coping strategies adopted in Cameroon. Focus group discussions were conducted to identify the COVID-19 shocks affecting farming households and the different response strategies implemented. A multi-stage random sampling method was employed to interview 249 households. Through the ordered probit model and other empirical strategies, we show that the COVID-19 pandemic significantly reduced farming households’ access to food, dietary diversity, and consumption frequency of essential food groups. Our results show that male-headed and rural households are significantly more food insecure than female-headed and semi-urban households. Moreover, our analysis shows that female-headed and semi-urban households reported a positive and statistically significant association with coping strategies, indicating that female-headed and urban households contributed more to sustaining household food security than male-headed and semi-urban households. The most implemented coping strategy is consuming less preferred and less expensive food. This study provides evidence for targeted interventions such as capacity build and training to strengthen farming households’ food and nutrition security resilience to emerging and unpredictable shocks. Strengthening and improving farming households’ coping strategies through capacity building and skills acquisition in off-farm income opportunities are crucial to improving their adaptive capacity and reducing their vulnerability to food and nutrition insecurity in Cameroon.

Effect of maize production on poverty reduction among maize farmers in Makurdi local government area of Benue state, Nigeria

The study assessed the effect of maize production on poverty reduction among maize farmers in Makurdi Local Government Area of Benue State, Nigeria using a multi-stage sampling technique to select 100 maize farmers as respondents. Data for the study were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. The result of the factors influencing production of maize in the study area revealed that farming experience (0.052) significant at 1%, off-farm income (1.35) significant at 1%, soil type (0.346) significant at 5%, rain-fed and irrigation (0.334) significant at 10% and season (0.60) significant at 1% were all positive and statistically significant which implied that they have influence on the production of maize. Most (67.0%) of the maize farmers are males with the mean age of 41.76 years. It was further revealed that most (60.0%) maize farmers in the study area are above the poverty line. On the effect of maize production to poverty reduction, the coefficient of increased income (1.05017) and improved standard of living (0.83657) were positive and significant at 10% level of probability poverty reduction among maize farmers. Contribution of maize production to income generation among maize farmers revealed that source of food (82.0%) is the major contributor to income generation in the study area. The study concluded that increased income and improved standard of living as the result of maize production reduced poverty among the maize farmers. It was therefore recommended that Government should provide irrigation, improved yield and disease resistant varieties to farmers to enhance maize production in the area.

Farmers’ preferences for diversifying compensation policy for mulch film pollution control: A discrete choice experiment in Northwest China

Public preferences for mulch film pollution control compensation policies are important for appropriate policymaking; however, current research on compensation mode corresponding to public preferences remains inadequate. Based on survey data from Northwest China, a choice experiment was used to examine farmers' preferences for mulch film pollution control compensation policies. As mulch film pollution control is labor intensive, the way in which socioeconomic and labor force characteristics predict preferences was also explored. Mixed logit modeling showed that, based on farmers' preferences, the current compensation mode is suboptimal. Farmers prefer manual or mechanical mulch-picking and door-to-door or field residual mulch film recycling services and cash compensation. Farmers’ preferences show considerable heterogeneity. Average implicit prices are significantly influenced by household income, mulching area, gender, aging, share of employment outside the township, and off-farm income share. The findings highlight the potential to identify socially acceptable ways to optimize mulch film pollution control compensation policies.

Economic Gains Obtained by the Collectors from Non-Timber Forest Products in the Jammu Region of Jammu and Kashmir

Non-timber forest products (NTFP) income played a vital role in the household economy of forest-dwelling communities. This study used the data from 150 sample households in the three forest divisions of the Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir State to analyze the significance of economic gains obtained from NTFPs. Data collection was carried out through face-to-face interviews. This study found that NTFP income contributed 29 per cent, and on-farm and off-farm income contribute 16 and 55 per cent to the total household income, respectively. Major NTFPs included Gucchi (Morchella esculenta), Patis (Aconitum chasmanthum), Nag chhatri (Trillium govanianum), Muskbala (Valeriana hardwickii), Banafsaha (Viola canescence), Dhoop (Jurinea macrocephala), Kaurd (Picorhiza kurroa), Zakham-e-Hayat (Bergenia ciliata), Kasrot (Diplazium esculentum), wild honey and Jungli thome (Allium sativum) were collected. Regression analyses showed that NTFP availability, agriculture as the main occupation, NTFP collection experience, and on-farm income positively contributed to the dependent variable. In contrast, the regression coefficient of off-farm income and source of information were negative contributors to the NTFPs' income. The study further suggested that providing education and other skill development training to local people in the collection, storage, and scientific grading of the NTFPs should be conducted.

Adoption of climate resilient agricultural practices among the Giriama community in South East Kenya: implications for conceptual frameworks

While quantitative studies are robust at assessing the extent of climate change adaptation, and statistical relationships among variables involved, qualitative studies are also essential to understand the social rationales underlying relationships among variables, and to identify the roles of variables that have been overlooked or are hard to measure. This study investigates factors that influence the adoption of climate resilient agricultural practices by resource-poor Giriama farmers in southeast Kenya, with a view to understanding why some smallholders from this cultural group adopt climate resilient practices, while others do not. Data was collected through in-depth interviews with 30 farmers, 15 of whom had adopted climate resilient farming practices recommended by agricultural experts, and 15 of whom had not adopted any of those practices. The adopters were market-oriented, and tended to have individual land tenure, higher levels of experience in farming, slightly larger farm sizes, middle to high school education levels, and be younger. They had access to agricultural extension, access to farm inputs, and their off-farm activities tended to be related to agricultural supply chains. Non-adopters farmed entirely for subsistence, on communal or leased land, had less formal education, and adhered strongly to cultural beliefs and practices. Their off-farm income was unrelated to agriculture. More of the adopters were males, while many of the non-adopters were female. Particular cultural practices and taboos inhibited the adoption of several of the climate resilient practices, such as planting hybrid maize, keeping dairy goats, using improved goats such as the Kenyan Alpine for breeding purposes and the use of water conservation structures for crop production. Further, the qualitative information explains how and why factors such as land ownership, gender, culture, and access to information are interrelated, in ways that are not necessarily obvious in statistical analysis. The study thus highlights issues that need to be considered in conceptual frameworks underpinning both quantitative and qualitative studies, and particularly how they interact, in order to provide the knowledge essential to policy and programs intended to enhance smallholder farmers' adaptive capacity.

Evaluating the impact of productive safety net program on rural household food security achievement: Endogenous switching regression modeling approach

The Ethiopian government, together with other organizational partners, developed the Rural Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) to combat food insecurity. Therefore, this article aimed to examine the impact of a rural PSNP on household food security in the market district. By the probability sampling technique, 380 sample households and two rural PSNP technicians used as the primary data source, while secondary data were collected from the national report. The analysis was carried out with the help of descriptive analysis and econometric models. The study used Endogenous Switching Model (ESM) to analyze and examine the impacts of a rural PSNP on food security and identify factors that affect household participation in rural PSNP. Ten explanatory variables were included in the model to identify the determinant variable, of which seven are significant. The significant variable found to determine households’ participation in rural PSNP is age, livestock unit, labor force, cultivated land, off-farm income, and credit access by a level of confidence of 5% and 1%, respectively. The study findings showed that participation in rural PSNP only increases current consumption smoothing rather than future consumption, after graduating member households turn back into their previous living standards. Currently, food insecurity is one of the main challenges in the study area that requires immediate intervention to alleviate the problem. The PSNP is one of the integrated programs with the aim of helping food-insecure rural households become food-secure ones. Based on the finding, the study recommends that the program cash transfer should be increased and complementary community investment should be introduced. The limitation of some targeting criteria is an observed problem of the program in the study area. Due to certain criteria, poor households were excluded. Therefore, an adjustment of the criteria that had been taken to exclude poor households is necessary.

LOAN REPAYMENT AND CREDIT WORTHINESS OF FARMERS UNDER BANK OF AGRICULTURE IN ENUGU STATE OF NIGERIA

The loan repayment and credit worthiness of farmers under Bank of Agriculture (BOA) in Enugu State were studied. One hundred and twenty respondents were randomly selected for the study using multi stage random sampling technique. The data for the study were collected using a well-structured questionnaire and interview schedule. Multiple regression analysis and logistic analysis were used to address the objectives of the study. The determinant factors to loan repayment in the study area were off -farm income, educational level and membership of organization. In addition, the factors affecting the farmers’ credit worthiness were distance from the bank, all-weather road, educational level and off-farm income. The need to ensure farmers’ access to educational programme, off- farm income employment and to form or join cooperative society were proffered.

Do farmers' risk perception, adaptation strategies, and their determinants benefit towards climate change? Implications for agriculture sector of Punjab, Pakistan.

Due to global and regional climatic dynamics for a couple of decades, agricultural productivity, rural livelihood, and food security have been badly affected in Pakistan. This study was conducted in Punjab, Pakistan, to explore the farmers' understanding of the impacts of climate change, adaptation strategies, determinants, and benefits on agriculture using data from 1080 respondents. Perceived risks by the farmers in the rice-wheat cropping system and the cotton-wheat cropping system were weed infestation, seed rate augmented, low-quality seeds, infestation of crop diseases and pests, change of cropping pattern, increase of input use, decrease of cropping intensity and productivity, decreasing soil fertility, increasing irrigation frequency, and increase of harvesting time. To alleviate the adverse influences of climate change, the adaptation strategies used by farmers were management of crop and variety, soil and irrigation water, diversification of agriculture production systems and livelihood sources, management of fertilizer and farm operations time, spatial adaptation, access to risk reduction measures and financial assets, adoption of new technologies, institutional support, and indigenous knowledge. Moreover, the results of Binary Logistic Regression indicate that adaptation strategies are affected by different factors like age, education, household family size, off-farm income, remittances, credit access, information on climatic and natural hazards, information on weather forecasting, land acreage, the experience of growing crops and rearing of livestock, tenancy status, tube well ownership, livestock inventory, access to market information, agricultural extension services, and distance from agricultural input/output market. There is a significant difference between adapters and nonadapters. The risk management system may be created to protect crops against failures caused by extreme weather events. There is a need to develop crop varieties that are both high yielding and resistant to climate change. Moreover, cropping patterns should be revised to combat the effects of climate change. To enhance farmers' standard of living, it is necessary to provide adequate extension services and a more significant number of investment facilities. These measures will assist farmers in maintaining their standard of living and food security over the long term to adapt to the effects of climate change based on various cropping zones.

Impact of adoption of climate smart agricultural practices to minimize production risk in Ethiopia: A systematic review

Climate change influences agriculture in sub Saharan Africa. The climate-smart agriculture approach is emerging as a new paradigm for adapting agriculture to the changing climate and mitigation. The main aim of this review was to assess the climate smart agriculture practice, factors affecting it and impact of climate smart agriculture. It was conducted by following systematic review procedures. It includes defining a research problem, conducting a literature searches, evaluating relevant material, data analysis, synthesis, and interpretation; and presentation. The result indicated that the climate smart agriculture implemented in Ethiopia were agronomic practices, integrated soil fertility management, conservation agriculture, agroforestry system, irrigation. The factors that affect climate smart agriculture in Ethiopia were age of the family head, sex, household size, education level, distance to farm land, farm size, farming system, farm income source, off-farm income, access to irrigation, market access, access to agricultural credit, access to extension service, membership to organizations, farmers’ perceptions of rainfall shocks, crop yield, access to climate information, access to agricultural inputs, slope, agro ecology, change in precipitation, tenure security and livestock ownership. The impact of climate smart agriculture practice improves soil fertility status, increased crop yield, per capita nutrition consumption and dietary diversity, increased income of smallholder farmers, hence reducing poverty. Therefore, adopting different climate smart agriculture practice should be promoted in different parts of the country. In addition, the study was limited geographically to Ethiopia and it is better to incorporate the study in Africa and worldwide level.

Adoption of farm management information systems (FMIS): The case of Brazilian sugarcane farmers

Farm Management Information Systems (FMIS) have been adopted by farmers for planning, monitoring, and controlling agricultural operations. These systems are at the core of the digital farming revolution and can improve the technical, economic, and environmental efficiency of farming. This study evaluates the factors that influence the decision to adopt FMIS by sugarcane farmers in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. A survey of 131 sugarcane farmers provided cross-sectional farm-level data for the 2018/19 crop year, which were analyzed by a logit regression model. The decision to adopt FMIS is positively affected by farmers’ level of education, private advisor, access to rural credit, off-farm income, farm size, and use of forward contracts. FMIS adoption is associated with risk-averse farmers as part of a risk management strategy. The results can help farmers in their decisions to adopt and both policymakers and FMIS suppliers in their strategies to foster FMIS diffusion. FMIS diffusion can increase sugarcane production efficiency resulting in positive shocks to sugar and ethanol production, which are key components of Brazil's rural development and energy strategies.

Effect of Borrower's Socio-Economic Profile on Agribusiness Loans Default Rate in Agricultural Finance Corporation, Mount Kenya Region

Background: Agribusiness loans advanced by Agricultural Finance Corporation (AFC) in Mount Kenya Region have high default rate of 20.33% which compares unfavourably with 10% benchmark for all types of loans in Kenya. This is a challenge, given the strategic importance of agribusiness credit in mainstreaming livelihoods to alleviate poverty by offering occupational and professional opportunities. This study aimed at analysing effect of borrower’s socio-economic profile on AFC loan default rate in agricultural finance corporation, Mount Kenya Region.
 Methods: According to AFC records Mount Kenya region represents a branch network of 11 branches and a population of 3,002 agribusiness borrowers. Using a descriptive research design a sample of 300 borrowers was drawn from a combined list through systematic random sampling technique with an interval of ten. Primary data on borrower’s socio-economic profile was collected using a structured questionnaire. The data was analysed using Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS V.27) and Stata version. Using regression analysis, the effect of independent and dependent variable to predict default rate was estimated. ANOVA was performed to get the F-statistic so as to test for the adequacy of the regression model. The logit econometric model was used to specify the statistical relationship between the independent variable and AFC loan default.
 Results: Results of the study revealed that multiple borrowing and borrower-lender distance were significant at 5%. Farming experience, borrowing experience and off-farm income were significant at 10%, 5% and 1% levels of significance. Multiple borrowing and borrower-lender distance were found to have 5.5% and 0.8% associations with default rate, respectively.
 Conclusion: The findings show that to mitigate default, the borrower should avoid multiple borrowing and manage the friction of distance. The study is significant since it enlightens the credit stakeholders on collective efforts that are effective in addressing the problem of default. The study recommends government interventionist policy by facilitating uptake of agricultural insurance and subsidizing input costs. Borrowers are encouraged to embrace technology, team up as farming communities to look for markets and affordable inputs, adopt agricultural insurances and adhere to lending directives.

Adoption and impacts of improved post-harvest technologies on food security and welfare of maize-farming households in Tanzania: a comparative assessment

During the last decade, post-harvest losses (PHL) reduction has been topping the agenda of governments as a pathway for addressing food security, poverty, and nutrition challenges in Africa. Using survey data from 579 households, we investigated the factors that affect farmers’ decisions to adopt post-harvest technologies: mechanized shelling, drying tarpaulins, and airtight storage validated for reducing PHL in Tanzania’s maize-based systems, and the impacts on households’ food security and welfare. Mechanized shelling addressed a labor issue, while tarpaulins and airtight storage addressed product quality and quantity concerns. The results revealed large farm sizes and location in higher production potential zones (proxies for higher production scale) and neighbors' use of the technologies as universal drivers for adoption. Access to credit and off-farm income were unique determinants for airtight storage, while group membership increased the probability of adopting drying tarpaulin and airtight storage. The technologies have positive impacts on food security and welfare: drying tarpaulins and airtight storage significantly increased food availability (18–27%), food access (24–26%), and household incomes (112–155%), whereas mechanized shelling improved food and total expenditures by 49% and 68%, respectively. The share of total household expenditure on food decreased by 42%, 11%, and 51% among tarpaulin, mechanized shelling, and airtight storage adopter households, signaling significant improvements in food security and reductions in vulnerability. The results point to the need for policy support to enhance the adoption of these technologies, knowledge sharing among farmers, and financial resources access to support investments in the technologies.

Does Outmigration of Unskilled Labourer from Domestic Agriculture Affect Household Income Sources Differently at Origin? Evidence from Assam, India

The study aims at examining the impact of outmigration of unskilled labourer from domestic agriculture on household income sources with farm level data collected from central Brahmaputra valley of Assam. The regression results confirm that outmigration of unskilled labourer from domestic agriculture is associated with the reduction in household income sources. However, the reinvestment of remittances partially offsets household’s loss of family labour effects through rising farm and off-farm income. Though, influx of remittances has not significantly increased household income, however, it has assisted in sustaining agricultural operation and other household activities. The findings of the study offer evidence in support of New Economics of Labour Migration theory. JEL: J21, J62

What sets cooperative farmers apart from non-cooperative farmers? A transaction cost economics analysis of coffee farmers in Mexico

This study investigates what factors relate to the coffee farmer’s cooperative affiliation decision and whether this decision impacts the farmer’s cash holdings. First, we propose a cooperative affiliation model based on transaction cost economics theory. There is a lack of consensus in the literature on what factors explain the farmer’s cooperative affiliation decision in the coffee sector. Overall, we find that the more specialized coffee farmers are, the more likely they will become cooperative affiliates. This is consistent with transaction cost economics predicting that cooperatives are business structures that can reduce transaction costs and safeguard specialized assets from opportunistic behavior. Specifically, logit regression models suggest that shade-grown coffee plantations, off-farm income, coffee farming experience, low-level market competition, farmland size, altitude, and private farmland are statistically related to the farmer’s decision to affiliate with cooperatives. Results on farmland size and shade-grown coffee plantations can be particularly relevant for scholars, policymakers, cooperative leaders, and extension professionals in the region. Second, based on the affiliation model, we employ propensity score matching to evaluate the impact of the farmer’s cooperative affiliation decision on cash holdings, particularly on cash shortness. It is often claimed that farmers do not affiliate with cooperatives because these organizations cannot pay them in full at harvest and coffee collection time. It is believed that cooperatives’ inability to pay farmers early increases the likelihood of farmers’ cash shortness and their need for additional financing to operate or cover household needs. However, this study finds no evidence that the affiliation decision is related to the likelihood of the farmer experiencing cash shortness around harvesting and selling time.

Patterns of Pig Farms: Case Study in Manokwari

Pigs are livestock that has a significant meaning for the local Papuan community. Pig rearing is done traditionally from generation to generation without providing technical input to increase productivity. Therefore, this study aimed to study the profile of pig farms that determine the production of pigs. This research was conducted in the Manokwari district. A semi-structured questionnaire was employed for data collection and supported by key informant group discussions. Respondents were sampled using purposive random sampling under predetermined criteria and then randomized. The percentage of each variable observed was done to know pig farming in Manokwari. The results of the analysis showed that the highest percentage of pig farmers as follows age over 50 years old (56%); the education of farmers is high school (44%); off-farm income came from the private sector (40%); pig ownership dominated by the female for all level (starter, grower and finisher). Farmers fed the pigs with a mixture of raw materials dominated by vegetables and tofu dregs.

Farmers’ perceptions of climate variability and adaptation strategies in the rural areas of Dire Dawa administration, eastern Ethiopia

Climate variability has significant impact on agricultural production especially in low-income countries where agriculture largely relies on rainfall, but only a few studies explored this issue at local scale. Therefore, this study was conducted to characterize local climate and assess farmers' perceptions and adaptation strategies to climate variability in the rural areas of Dire Dawa administration. Historical rainfall and temperature data (1987–2017) were obtained from National Meteorological Agency (NMA) of Ethiopia, while data of farmers' perceptions and adaptation strategies were collected from a total of 120 household heads through survey questionnaire, key informant interviews and focus group discussions. The results revealed that the area received an average annual rainfall of 568.3 mm with main rainy season (kiremt) contributing 70.7% to annual rainfall. The earliest and latest onset dates of kiremt season were 15th of April and 2nd of August, respectively. The amount of annual and kiremt rainfall totals showed low and medium variability with a coefficient variability (CV) of 18.3% and 27.7%, respectively, whereas short rainy season (belg) rainfall had high variability with a CV of 43.9%. Climate variability perception analysis showed that an overwhelming majority of the respondents (90%) perceived a decrease in the annual rainfall and 91.7% detected an increase in annual average temperature in the study area. Farmers of the study area were well aware of the changes in rainfall and temperature and thus employed a range of adaptation practices. Soil and water conservation practices (100%), off-farm income diversification (63%), planting drought-tolerant varieties (50%) and changing of planting date (45%) were the main adaptation strategies employed in the study area to avert the negative effects of climate variability. The findings imply that the area has been experiencing palpable changes in climate variables during the study period against which farmers exercised multiple adaptation strategies. However, farmers in the area are still face hardship as a result of climate variability which necessitates improving farmers’ resilience through innovative mechanisms and better extension services.

Examining Smallholder Rice Farmers’ Yield Improvement Needs in Asunafo North Municipality of Ghana

Scholars who promoted crop production increase for food security have overlooked the fact that per-hectare yield does not necessarily increase. In Ghana, where food insecurity has become worse in recent years, domestic rice production has not contributed much to domestic rice consumption. The question remains what factors contributed to smallholder rice farmers’ low yield? Also, what do these smallholder rice farmers need to do to improve yield? This study adopted a simple random sampling technique to select 154 rice farmers for a questionnaire survey in October and November 2020. The results are discussed partly by performing a correlation analysis, an independent t-test, and Kendall’s coefficient of concordance. We found that 58.4% of the respondents cultivated popular high-yield varieties like AGRA and Jasmine, but their yield remained relatively lower than the national average. One of the reasons behind this low yield outcome among the respondents was that improved seed varieties were not timely available (92.8%) and the input cost was high (85.7%). The average annual income from rice farming for these respondents was too low for them to procure a sufficient amount of input. Regarding respondents’ technology needs, Kendall’s coefficient of concordance showed that timely access to improved varieties, irrigation infrastructure, and row planting were among the most important. As to their non-technological needs, the respondents needed timely information about rice production, more access to credit, and more frequent services from extension officers. The correlation analysis revealed that respondents’ experience and off-farm income showed a significant positive and negative association with their yield levels. This paper then discusses recommendations for providing improved rice production technologies to farmers. Keywords: Smallholder farmers, Rice, Yield improvement, Technological/non-technological needs DOI: 10.7176/JBAH/13-8-04 Publication date: May 31 st 2023