OECD Member Countries Research Articles

OECD Ülkelerinin Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma Değişkenlerine Göre Kendi Kendine Öğrenen Haritalar Yaklaşımı ile Kümelenmesi

Sustainable Development concept (SD) aims to better life for future generations. However, the COVID-19 pandemic has caused tremendous effects on people’s life in several areas. Therefore, the study aimed to investigate the impact of COVID-19 on the selected part of SD indicators in the OECD countries using Self-Organizing Map (SOM). SOM is a kind of artificial neural network (ANN) method, which is an effective clustering method to find hinder non-linear relationships between indicators. The data contained 38 OECD member countries for 11 variables for each country, covering three years (2019-2021). Firstly, descriptive statistics and Spearman rank correlation analysis were used for bivariate analysis. The coefficient of variation was also used to measure the convergence of indicators. Then, it was a two-stage clustering method using SOM and hierarchical clustering methods—the optimal cluster found according to the Silhouette Index and Davies–Bouldin Index, and as three. The convergence of gross domestic product increased gradually to 40.33% in 2019, 42.01% in 2020, and 43.69% in 2021, meaning increasing relative variability of OECD countries. While the mean of the life span was decreased, the share of health expenditure, health expenditure per capita, out-of-pocket health expenditure, and government health expenditure were increased in the study period. According to clustering analysis, the countries had similar characteristics within three years, except Colombia. Also, the USA distinguished very different characteristics from other OECD countries. Although the mean of study indicators varies due to the effect of the pandemic, the change within each OECD country showed mostly similar characteristics within three years.

NATIONAL TOURISM ORGANISATIONS (NTOS) IN OECD COUNTRIES AND PARTNER ECONOMIES

This study is of overview and informative nature and is focused on presenting National Tourism Organisations (NTOs), i.e. entities mainly responsible for tourism marketing policies implemented by individual countries. In the article, solutions are offered, which are practiced in 50 countries, i.e., 38 OECD member countries and 12 so-called partner economies (countries) of the organisation. Most of the information (concerning the 50 countries) comes from the OECD Tourism Trends and Policies 2022 report [OECD 2022], released on November 30, 2022. At the same time, other studies, including scholarly ones, were used. The study is not aimed at determining or analysing the effectiveness or efficiency of activities implemented by individual National Tourism Organisations. As mentioned, the primary objective is limited to presenting the adopted solutions in the studied countries.

The impact of agriculture and industry sectors on environmental pollution: an econometric application in selected OECD member countries

İnsanoğlu yaradılışından bu yana çevre ile sürekli etkileşim halinde olmuştur. Tarım ve sanayi sektörlerinde yaşanan gelişmeler; yaşamı daha konforlu hale getirirken, ekonomik büyüme ve refah düzeyinde artışlar sağlanmış ancak, doğaya daha fazla müdahale edildiğinden, çevre üzerinde baskılar artmış, yaşam alanlarının bozulmasına yol açmıştır. Gelişmiş ve gelişmekte olan ülkelerde hızlı sanayileşme süreci ile enerji kullanımındaki artışlar CO2 salınımını artırarak çevresel tahribatlara neden olmuştur. Çevresel tahribattaki artışlara paralel çevre kalitesindeki düşüşler ülkelerin, endişelerini artırdığından bu konulardaki araştırmalar öncelenmiş, sürdürülebilir çevre dostu ekonomik büyüme hedefleri ortaya konulmuştur. Bu çalışmanın amacını tarım ve sanayi sektöründeki gelişmelerin çevre kirliliği üzerindeki etkisini seçilmiş OECD üyesi ülkelerinde (Fransa, Almanya, ABD, Birleşik Krallık, Danimarka, Hollanda, Belçika, Japonya, İtalya ve İspanya) araştırmak olmuştur. Çalışmada 2000-2019 dönemine ait veri setinden hareketle panel veri analizi uygulanmıştır. Çalışmada uygulanan FMOLS analizi bulgularına göre; uzun dönemde tarımsal katma değerdeki 1 birimlik artış CO2 emisyonlarını 0.12 birim; sanayileşmedeki 1 birimlik artış CO2 emisyonlarını 0.31 birim ve tarımsal arazi alanındaki 1 birimlik artış CO2 salınımlarını 0.92 birim artırdığı belirlenmiştir. Bununla birlikte çalışmada uygulanan panel DOLS analizinden elde edilen sonuçlara göre; uzun dönemde tarımsal katma değerdeki 1 birimlik artış CO2 salınımlarında 1.02 birim; tarımsal arazi alanındaki 1 birimlik artış ise CO2 emisyonlarında 1.41 birimlik artışa neden olduğu tespit edilmiştir.

A cross-country comparative analysis of congestion pricing systems: Lessons for decarbonizing transportation

Alongside national and sub-national climate action, local governments play a particularly important role in implementing climate change mitigation policy. While substantial efforts are being taken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in some communities, additional efforts are needed to encourage behavioural change in driving demand and mode of transportation. Congestion pricing is a key policy which can motivate this change. Using a comparative analysis of congestion pricing systems worldwide, this study examines government policy documents and academic literature to identify policy design features that are most desirable for achieving GHG and air quality emissions targets. Specifically, congestion pricing policies are evaluated against the attributes of implementation context, design characteristics, effectiveness, and political acceptability. In total, 16 congestion pricing systems across 11 cities in OECD member countries are assessed. Findings suggest that area-based congestion pricing systems can provide local governments with a relatively cost-effective tool to implement consistent reductions in greenhouse gas emissions in areas with a pre-existing air quality concern. Congestion pricing policies can achieve broad acceptability with thoughtful design and implementation focusing on equity and user engagement.

공적개발원조 성과관리

In many OECD member countries, including South Korea, Official Development Assistance (ODA) has been steadily increasing. However, criticisms have been raised regarding the limited tangible impact compared to the amount of assistance provided. Hence, there is a growing emphasis on managing ODA outcomes based on the policy validity and sustainability of aid projects and on the importance of project evaluations from the recipient country's perspective. In this study, drawing on prior research, we conceptualized aid quality through sub-factors such as service quality, delivery quality, expectation levels, and social responsibility. We analyzed their effects on aid satisfaction using a structural model. Notably, we incorporated experience in the relevant field and country-specific collaboration experiences as moderating variables to validate the maturity of the aid system. Our findings suggest that social responsibility and expectation levels positively influence aid satisfaction. Conversely, experience in the relevant field and collaboration experience in specific countries showed significant impact only in certain paths. These results indicate the necessity of meeting expectation levels and fulfilling social responsibilities to enhance aid satisfaction. Furthermore, there's a demand for a sustainable management system that elucidates the causal relationships between aid environment and influencing factors and evaluates outcomes from the beneficiary country's viewpoint.

Declining real interest rates: The role of energy prices in energy importers

This study investigates whether the upward trend in real energy prices since the 1990s can account for the decreasing trend in real interest rates in energy-importing countries. By estimating dynamic panel data models, I first provide empirical evidence that a rise in real energy prices leads to falls in real interest rates and aggregate consumption in energy-importing OECD member countries. Using a life-cycle model, I show that the increasing trend in real energy prices decreased the equilibrium real interest rate by about 1.4 percentage points between 1990 and 2018. The mechanism for this effect is as follows: As a result of the increases in the real energy price, energy consumption falls, dampening the consumption of manufactured goods because of the complementarity in consumption between energy and manufactured goods. Accordingly, aggregate consumption declines, putting downward pressure on the real interest rate. Moreover, the increased real energy price decreases energy input in production, raising the capital/energy ratio and inducing a lower real interest rate via a fall in the marginal product of capital. Through a simulation, I also demonstrate that increases in the real energy price had a greater influence on the declining real interest rate in energy-importing countries during 1990–2018, compared to population aging.

Non-homogeneity in the efficiency evaluation of health systems

BackgroundAn international comparison of health system performance is a popular tool of health policy analysis. However, the efficiency evaluation of health systems is a practical example of an international comparison in which non-homogeneity is expected. The objective of this paper is to evaluate the efficiency of health systems by models in which a degree of non-homogeneity among countries is considered.MethodsWe study the problem of non-homogeneity of health systems in the theoretical framework of the data envelopment analysis (DEA), which is a popular method of efficiency evaluation with hundreds of applications from various fields. DEA assume the homogeneity of production units and the homogeneity of the environment in which the production units operate. Hence, we compiled a summary of 14 recommendations on how to deal with the non-homogeneity in the DEA models. The analysed sample includes 38 OECD member countries. The data are from the year 2019.ResultsAs an example, we evaluated the health system efficiency of the Czech Republic. We used the DEA models with the neighbourhood measure of distance and the constraint limiting the comparison of countries with different levels of economic development. The health system inputs were the numbers of physicians, nurses, and hospital beds. In the production of the intermediate outputs (doctor consultations, inpatient care discharges), the Czech Republic should look at Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia. In the production of health outcomes (life expectancy), the peer countries are France, Italy and Switzerland.ConclusionsThe results of the DEA analysis are only indicative because no single analytical method can determine whether a health system is better or worse than others. We need to combine different methods, and DEA is one of them. We consider DEA as an exploratory method, not a method providing definitive answers.

The Influence of Student-Level Factors on Reading Literacy: A Comprehensive Study

The aim of the present study was to examine the factor affecting reading performance of the students in a broad sense. The sample was comprised of a total of 752076 students who participated in PISA studies from OECD member countries during the years of 2000 (n = 159095), 2009 (n = 298454) and 2018 (n = 294527) in which reading literacy was the major domain of interest. The causal relationships were examined by using a series of multiple linear regressions by using IDB Analyzer software which creates syntaxes that replicate the analysis 80 times for each plausible value and calculate the average values by taking into account the student weights as suggested in the PISA manuals. The results revealed that enjoyment of reading (at 91%, 100%, and 56% of countries in 2000, 2009, and 2018, respectively), and index of economic, social, and cultural status (at 81%, 91%, and 91% of countries in 2000, 2009, and 2018, respectively) were ranked among the most significant variables that predict reading literacy in all three PISA cycles. While metacognition was not included in 2000, it was among the most important variables (at 100% of countries) in 2009 and 2018.

Central Bank Credibility’s Effect on Stock Exchange Returns’ Volatility: Evidence from OECD Countries

Central bank characteristics are important determinants of stock market returns and their volatility. While the literature has examined the effects of transparency and independence, no research has been conducted so far on the effect of central bank credibility on stock market returns’ volatility. A panel regression using financial and macroeconomic data from 45 OECD member countries over the period of 1998–2022 tested the hypothesis that central bank credibility determines stock exchange returns’ volatility. The results indicated that credibility reduces stock returns’ volatility, remaining robust and statistically significant across models. Economic growth also decreases stock market volatility, while money-market interest rates’ volatility, the stock market’s turnover ratio, and economic/financial crises act as amplifying factors of stock market volatility. All variables, except for economic growth, exhibit unidirectional causality, leading to changes in stock market volatility.

OECD Ülkelerinde Finansal Yenilik ve Çevre Kirliliği Arasındaki İlişki

Climate changes as a result of environmental degradation have negative effects in many areas. Many studies in the economics literature have examined the effects of these negativities from different perspectives. In this study, the relationship between financial innovation and CO2 emission, which is newly used in the literature, is examined for 14 OECD member countries. LLC and IPS unit root tests, Pedroni and Kao cointegration tests and FMOLS estimator were used in the analyses for the period between 2009 and 2019. According to the findings obtained from the analyses, it is seen that financial innovation, economic growth and urbanization have negative effects on CO2 emissions. In addition, in the results of Dumitrescu-Hurlin causality test applied in the study, it was determined that there is a bidirectional causality relationship between economic growth, urbanization and CO2 emissions, and a unidirectional causality relationship between financial innovation and CO2 emissions. In this direction, it is considered important that companies and governments should act together. It is considered that the creation of green loans by financial intermediaries for environmentally sensitive projects can encourage investors. In order to prevent environmental degradation from a holistic perspective, the government should take measures such as subsidies and tax reductions to encourage environmentally friendly projects.

Renewable energy performance analysis using fuzzy dynamic directional distance function model under natural and managerial disposability

Addressing the dynamic performance aspects of processes and identifying the sources of inefficiency are key considerations for making informed decisions, especially in situations where imprecise data are available. This study aims to evaluate the performance of renewable energy using the Fuzzy Dynamic Directional Distance Function (FDDDF) model considering natural and managerial disposability for 34 OECD member countries. As a non-parametric methodology, Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) is used to measure dynamic fuzzy environmental efficiencies of renewable energy through multiple fuzzy inputs and outputs. Using the proposed approach, optimistic, pessimistic and integrated renewable energy performances of entities with carry-overs are assessed for each period and generally. The empirical findings reveal that the proposed FDDDF approach has strong capability to discriminate the performance of renewable energy.

Comparison of Women’s Labor Market Participation between Types of Childcare Policies Based on Policy Tool Mix

This study examines the effect of state-centered childcare policies on women’s labor market participation. It applies the fuzzy-set qualitative method to OECD member countries and classifies countries into seven types based on the mix of childcare policy tools in terms of the state’s directness of funding, directness of service creation, and coerciveness of service quality regulation. This helped identify an effective combination of childcare policy tools for increasing women’s labor market participation. Thus, providing childcare services that policy consumers can trust by increasing the government’s enforcement of qualitative regulations on childcare services is critical.

The importance of public sector size and resources volatility in carbon emissions: Empirical evidence from OECD countries

Natural resources and environmental depletion are significant concerns for both developing and developed nations. Those challenges not only surge environmental risks but also result in extensive financial damages, leading to the provision of substantial funds each year for carbon mitigation strategies. The present study aims to inspect the impact of public sector size and natural resource volatility on environmental depletion by evaluating panel data from twenty OECD member countries. Based on data availability, the selected time frame for analysis is 1995–2021. The study employs the Augmented Mean Group (AMG) approach to address potential biases arising from cross-sectional dependence (CD) and slope heterogeneity. The findings depicted a positive relationship between public sector size, natural resource volatility, and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in selected OECD countries. The results underscore that an increased share of government expenditures and high natural resource volatility contribute to carbon emissions. These outcomes highlight the need to condemn the highly volatile consumption of natural resources to bring stability in the resources markets and also condemn irresponsible financing of environmentally unfriendly projects for the sake of a healthier environment. The study proposed that governments should pay attention to prioritizing environmental quality when utilizing natural resources or allocating funds across various sectors.

Benchmarking countries' technical efficiency using AHP-based weighted slack-based measurement (W-SBM): A cross-national perspective

ObjectivesThe objective of the research is to assess the technical efficiency of national health systems in OECD member countries and to provide ideas to improve the efficiency of health systems in countries that have been identified as having a lower degree of efficiency as a result of the findings. MethodsThe technical efficiency scores were calculated using one of the data envelopment analyses (DEA), the Weighted Slack-Based Measure (W-SBM). The Analytic Hierarchy Process was used to establish the aforementioned weights (AHP). Weights are calculated separately for both input and output variables. ResultsThe technical efficiency of the relevant countries' health systems is around 0.79, according to the data, and just 13 (36.1%) of the 36 countries have a fairly efficient health system. ConclusionsThe outcomes of the study were supposed to aid health policymakers and management in improving system efficiency. In addition, since the number of studies examining the health systems of OECD countries with the W-SBM method is limited, it is thought that this study will make an important contribution to the literature.

OECD Ülkelerinde Satın Alma Gücü Paritesinin İncelenmesi: Doğrusal Olmayan Yapısal Kırılmalı Birim Kök Testinden Yeni Kanıtlar

This study aims to investigate the purchasing power parity (PPP) hypothesis for 38 OECD member countries over the period 1994:M1-2021:M9 by performing Hepsag’s (2021) unit root test. It fills the gap in the literature since it is one of the first studies conducted performing a unit root test that considers structural change and nonlinearity for all OECD countries. The study, in which conventional unit root tests such as the ADF, KPSS, and the Fourier KPSS, which allow merely structural change, yield conflicting results regarding the validity of the PPP hypothesis, determines that the PPP hypothesis is valid for countries with stationary real effective exchange rates at the level such as Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Japan, Korea, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Mexico, Norway, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey, and the USA according to Hepsag’s (2021) unit root test results.

A Study of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Detection Using Different Neural Networks in Autopsy Specimens.

Tuberculosis (TB) presents a substantial health risk to autopsy staff, given its three to five times higher incidence of TB compared to clinical staff. This risk is notably accentuated in South Korea, which reported the highest TB incidence rate and the third highest TB mortality rate among OECD member countries in 2020. The standard TB diagnostic method, histopathological examination of sputum or tissue for acid-fast bacilli (AFB) using Ziehl-Neelsen staining, demands microscopic examination of slides at 1000× magnification, which is labor-intensive and time-consuming. This article proposes a computer-aided diagnosis (CAD) system designed to enhance the efficiency of TB diagnosis at magnification less than 1000×. By training nine neural networks with images taken from 30 training slides and 10 evaluation slides at 400× magnification, we evaluated their ability to detect M. tuberculosis. The N model achieved the highest accuracy, with 99.77% per patch and 90% per slide. We discovered that the model could aid pathologists in preliminary TB screening, thereby reducing diagnostic time. We anticipate that this research will contribute to minimizing autopsy staff's infection risk and rapidly determining the cause of death.

A Spatio-Temporal Analysis of OECD Member Countries’ Health Care Systems: Effects of Data Missingness and Geographically and Temporally Weighted Regression on Inference

Determinants of health care quality and efficiency are of importance to researchers, policy-makers, and public health officials as they allow for improved human capital and resource allocation as well as long-term fiscal planning. Statistical analyses used to understand determinants have neglected to explicitly discuss how missing data are handled, and consequently, previous research has been limited in inferential capability. We study OECD health care data and highlight the importance of transparency in the assumptions grounding the treatment of data missingness. Attention is drawn to the variation in ordinary least squares coefficient estimates and performance resulting from different imputation methods, and how this variation can undermine statistical inference. We also suggest that parametric regression models used previously are limited and potentially ill-suited for analysis of OECD data due to the inability to deal with both spatial and temporal autocorrelation. We propose the use of an alternative method in geographically and temporally weighted regression. A spatio-temporal analysis of health care system efficiency and quality of care across OECD member countries is performed using four proxy variables. Through a forward selection procedure, medical imaging equipment in a country is identified as a key determinant of quality of care and health outcomes, while government and compulsory health insurance expenditure per capita is identified as a key determinant of health care system efficiency.

The Impact of Education and Economic Growth on Female Unemployment in Different Age Groups: An Econometric Analysis on Selected OECD Member Countries

Günümüzde kadın işgücü geçmişe oranla daha fazla istihdam edilse de çeşitli faktörlerin etkisiyle erkek işgücünün istihdam düzeyinin gerisinde kalmaktadır. Kadın işgücünün yetersiz istihdamı da çeşitli sorunları beraberinde getirmektedir. Bu nedenle kadın istihdamını etkileyen faktörler çeşitli çalışmalarda ele alınmıştır. Bu çalışmada bu faktörlerden eğitimin ve ekonomik büyümenin kadın istihdamı üzerindeki etkisi farklı yaş gruplarındaki kadınlar için analiz edilmektedir. Çalışmada Avusturya, Avustralya, Kolombiya, Portekiz, Finlandiya ve Türkiye’nin 2005-2020 dönemi verilerinden yararlanılarak panel veri analizi uygulanmıştır. Bu bağlamda ilk olarak homojenite ve yatay-kesit bağımlılık testleri yapılmış, ardından ulaşılan sonuçlardan hareketle hangi birim kök testlerinin uygulanacağına karar verilmiştir. Birim kök testleri uygulandıktan sonra eş bütünleşme analizinin yapılmasının uygun olduğuna karar verilerek Westerlund eş bütünleşme testi uygulanmıştır. Son olarak katsayıların belirlenmesi amacıyla dinamik en küçük kareler (DOLS) metodu uygulanmıştır. Analizlerden elde edilen sonuçlara göre eğitim ve büyüme değişkenlerinin her ikisinin de 25-29 yaş kadın işsizlik oranlarını negatif yönde etkilediği görülmektedir. Eğitim değişkeninin 29-34 yaş kadın işsizlik değişkeni üzerinde anlamlı bir etkisi olmadığı görülürken; büyüme değişkeninin 29-34 yaş kadın işsizlik değişkeni üzerindeki etkisinin negatif yönde olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Tüm bunlardan hareketle, eğitimin genç yaş grubu olarak sayılabilecek 25-29 yaş grubundaki kadınların istihdamını azalttığı ancak zamanla etkisini kaybettiği; iktisadi büyümenin ise kadın istihdamını çoğu zaman olumlu etkilediği söylenebilir.

THE EFFECT OF FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENTS ON CORPORATE TAX REVENUES: AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS FOR OECD COUNTRIES

Foreign direct investment (FDI) increased globally in the 1980s, parallel to the increasing liberalization of financial markets, the reduction of exchange rate controls, increased capital mobilization, and accelerated technological developments. FDIs offer versatile macro and micro scale positive effects to the host economies. In this context, FDIs have been the focus of academicians and policymakers for reasons such as filling the domestic savings gap, providing financial stability, achieving economic growth targets, and increasing social welfare, which is needed for developing and developed countries. Therefore, governments tend to build attractive investment zones for FDIs by providing tax cuts/advantages and bureaucratic conveniences in financial legislation. In this study, using system-GMM estimator, the effect of FDIs on corporate tax revenues for 35 OECD member countries in the 2005-2020 period was examined and it was understood that the said effect was limited but negative.

Influences of Talent Cultivation and Utilization on the National Human Resource Development System Performance: An International Study Using a Two-Stage Data Envelopment Analysis Model

To enhance national competitiveness, countries are committed to building a National Human Resource Development (NHRD) system to develop talents. However, studies have rarely investigated the internal development process of the NHRD system and the performance at the system and sub-system levels. Thus, this study constructed the performance evaluation model of the NHRD system from a two-stage process efficiency perspective that first cultivates talents and then uses the talents produced to create value. In addition, considering the problem of international talent flow and the time-lag effect, the bad output and the time-lag between inputs and outputs were incorporated into the model. The subjects included 60 countries, including Argentina, China, and OECD member countries. The results reveal that countries that excel at nurturing talents do not necessarily have the ability to effectively use talents to create value. Only having high-efficiency talent cultivation cannot strengthen competitiveness. Sensitivity analysis was also conducted to identify the input that affects talent cultivation and utilization efficiency, which could be used as a reference for competitiveness and NHRD performance improvement.