Number Of Verbs Research Articles

The Kartvelian Languages as Morphologically Rich Ones

The consideration of the languages of the Kartvelian branch, as agglutinating and those pertaining to satellite typology, as morphologically rich languages (MRL) should be based on the following criteria: number of grammatically marked categories; number of free and bound morphemes within a word-form; a number of word-form for each lexemes; fusional morphonology.Kartvelian substantives are inflected only for two grammatical categories, whereas the Kartvelian verb may be inflected for 11-13 categories being classified as those of conjugational and derivational.   In the Kartvelian languages, nominal and verbal structures are made of bound morphemes. A general number of morphemic markers in morphological structures of the Kartvelian substantives and verbs are more or less varied; simultaneous representations of combinations are based on morphological rules. Initial patterns of a verbal paradigm vary with respect to the categories of version, voice, causation, to a kind of subject-object order; these also facilitate an occurrence of a great number of inflected verbs. In the verbal structure of the unwritten Kartvelian languages, phonology hardly counts with morphology; therefore, fusional morphemes occur as a result of phonetic transformations at morpheme boundaries.  In verbal inflections, numbers of homoforms vary with respect to a language; abundant inflection is a condition for considering the Kartvelian languages as morphologically rich ones.      &nbsp

Can Heritage Speakers Predict Lexical and Morphosyntactic Information in Reading?

Ample evidence suggests that monolingual adults can successfully generate lexical and morphosyntactic predictions in reading and that correct predictions facilitate sentence comprehension. In this eye-tracking corpus reading study, we investigate whether the same is true for reading in heritage language. Specifically, we ask whether heritage speakers (HSs) of Russian are able to anticipate lexical and/or morphosyntactic information of the upcoming words in the sentence and whether they differ in the predictions from monolingual children and L2 learners. We are also interested in whether the literacy level (i.e., Russian literacy experience or reading fluency in English) influences lexical and morphosyntactic prediction. Our results indicate that HSs as well as other groups were able to anticipate the specific lexical item, and the ability was contingent on the Russian literacy experience and reading fluency in dominant English as evident in some of the early and late eye-tracking measures. Similar to children and L2 learners, the word class and the verb number predictability affected reading times in HSs, but HSs were the only group to anticipate the number of the upcoming noun. We discuss findings in respect to the utility account of the bilingual prediction and divergent attainment trajectory of the heritage language development.

A million is more than a thousand: Children's acquisition of very large number words.

Very large numbers words such as "hundred," "thousand," "million," "billion," and "trillion" pose a learning problem for children because they are sparse in everyday speech and children's experience with extremely large quantities is scarce. In this study, we examine when children acquire the relative ordering of very large number words as a first step toward understanding their acquisition. In Study 1, a hundred and twenty-five 5-8-year-olds participated in a verbal number comparison task involving very large number words. We found that children can judge which of two very large numbers is more as early as age 6, prior to entering first grade. In Study 2, we provided a descriptive analysis on the usage of very large number words using the CHILDES database. We found that the relative frequency of large number words does not change across the years, with "hundred" uttered more frequently than others by an order of magnitude. We also found that adults were more likely to use large number words to reference units of quantification for money, weight, and time, than for discrete, physical entities. Together, these results show that children construct a numerical scale for large number words prior to learning their precise cardinal meanings, and highlight how frequency and context may support their acquisition. Our results have pedagogical implications and highlight a need to investigate how children acquire meanings for number words that reference quantities beyond our everyday experience.

Сравнительный анализ вспомогательных глаголов в составе аналитических конструкций в разноструктурных языках (на материале французского, английского, русского, татарского)

The paper aims to determine allomorphic and isomorphic features of auxiliary verbs in various analytical constructions. The study is novel in that it identifies shared and distinct semantic meanings and structural components of analytical constructions in different languages, simultaneously creating a common field of variability. As a result, it has been proved that the number of auxiliary verbs ranges from 1 to 4 in the studied languages, with only a single verb being completely desemantised. The semantic field of verbal analytical constructions includes core temporal, aspectual and modal meanings along with specific peripheral ones. Using the example of the verb “to go”, the researcher ascertains the correlation between quantitative indicators and the level of desemantisation of the auxiliary verb and proves that the ratio to the use in the literal meaning varies over a wide range in the four languages: French, English, Russian, Tatar.

Early Productive Vocabulary Composition as Precursor of Dyslexia.

The aim of this study was to gain more insight into the linguistic characterization of dyslexia by investigating vocabulary acquisition. In a previous study, vocabulary at 17 months of age appeared to be related to familial risk (FR) of dyslexia. The aim of this study was to investigate how the differences in lexical composition further develop up to 3 years (35 months) of age and, more importantly, to what extent these differences can be considered specific precursors of dyslexia later on. In a total number of 262 children from the Dutch Dyslexia Program, 169 with and 93 without FR for dyslexia, productive vocabulary was assessed with the Dutch version of the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventories at ages 17, 23, 29, and 35 months. Reading tests were administered in Grades 2 and 3, resulting in dyslexia diagnosis in 60 FR children (FR-dys), leaving 109 FR children who developed normal reading skills (FR-nondys) and 93 control children. Children's expressive vocabulary was scored according to the total number of words produced and according to the different major linguistic word categories: nouns, predicates, and closed-class words. The analyses comprised a comparison of total productive vocabulary and the number of words per grammatical category at four different ages for the three groups (FR-dys, FR-nondys, and control). Also, correlations were calculated between vocabulary scores and reading scores. Up to 29 months of age, the total numbers of nouns, predicates, and closed-class words are significantly lower for the FR-dys group as compared with the FR-nondys and control groups; for closed-class words at 23 and 35 months of age, the FR-nondys group's mean values are in between the mean of the FR-dys and control groups. Weak correlations were found between total vocabulary size, number of verbs, number and proportion of predicates at 23 months of age, and word and pseudoword reading fluency in Grades 2 and 3. These results indicate that development of vocabulary is a significant though weak predictor of reading fluency and dyslexia; vocabulary size and proportion of verbs at 23 months of age, as well as proportion of closed-class words up to 35 months of age, seem to be the most sensitive indicators of delayed vocabulary development and later reading difficulties. There is no indication that FR for dyslexia by itself is related to vocabulary development.

Subject–Verb Number Agreement in Bilingual Processing: (Lack of) Age of Acquisition and Proficiency Effects

Children acquire language more easily than adults, though it is controversial whether this faculty declines as a result of a critical period or something else. To address this question, we investigate the role of age of acquisition and proficiency on morphosyntactic processing in adult monolinguals and bilinguals. Spanish monolinguals and intermediate and advanced early and late bilinguals of Spanish read sentences with adjacent subject–verb number agreements and violations and chose one of four pictures. Eye-tracking data revealed that all groups were sensitive to the violations and attended more to more salient plural and preterit verbs than less obvious singular and present verbs, regardless of AoA and proficiency level. We conclude that the processing of adjacent SV agreement depends on perceptual salience and language use, rather than AoA or proficiency. These findings support usage-based theories of language acquisition.

Number Marking of the Verb in the East Caucasian Languages

The purpose of this article is to provide a review of dedicated number marking on verbs in the East Caucasian languages. The review is based on the data drawn from grammatical descriptions. First of all, possible ways to analyze number marking on verbs are discussed: 1) as agreement, i.e. as an operation by which morphological features are copied from one word form onto another, 2) as a special category of verbal number. Second, the article discusses the ways in which number is marked on verbs and the factors by which this marking is conditioned. As it turns out, the Nakh and the Avar-Ando-Tsez branches feature number marking strategies, which are limited to a lexically defined set of verbs. Number markers in this case are localized in the verb stem. On the other hand, in many branches of the family, a different situation is also common: number marking is conditioned by the TAM-forms of the verb, i.e. by grammatical factors. Third, the diachrony of number marking is considered. The article proposes that the verb forms which are marked for number often go back to copular constructions where the predicate position is occupied by a participial form. As a result of grammaticalization of these constructions into verbal forms, the original nominal number marking on the participle develops into verbal number marking.

Does Electrical Status Epilepticus in Sleep Adversely Affect Language in Self-Limiting Focal Epilepsies of Childhood?

The electrical status epilepticus in sleep (ESES) accompanies a wide spectrum of focal and generalized epilepsies, which manifest with cognitive-linguistic regression. Both ESES and language impairment can be seen in self-limited focal epileptic syndromes of childhood (SFEC). The association between the presence of ESES pattern on the EEG and the severity of the language impairment has not been adequately clarified. Twenty-eight SFEC cases without intellectual and motor disabilities and 32 healthy children were recruited. Cases with active ESES (A-ESES, n=6) and without ESES pattern on EEG (non-ESES, n=22) were compared in terms of clinical features and linguistic parameters by both standard and descriptive assessment tools. The only significantly different clinical feature in the A-ESES group was the increased prevalence of polytherapy. While most of the linguistic parameters were impaired in A-ESES and non-ESES groups compared to healthy controls, A-ESES patients differed from non-ESES patients only in terms of decreased complex sentence production, which was assessed by narrative analysis. A-ESES patients also showed trends toward producing lower numbers of words, nouns, verbs, and adverbs during narrative analysis. There were no differences among patients under polytherapy and monotherapy in terms of these language parameters. Our results show that ESES increases the negative effect of chronic epilepsy on complex sentence and word production. Linguistic distortions that are not reflected in objective tests can be detected by narrative tools. Complex syntactic production obtained by narrative analysis is an important parameter that extensively characterizes language skills in school-age children with epilepsy.

Critical Discourse Analysis of Modal Verbs in 2017 BRICS Talk—A Perspective of Functional Systemic Grammar

Modality received considerable attention from both a synchronic and diachronic perspective. Modality can be realized by finite modal operators and modal adjuncts. This paper tries to analyze modal verbs used by five hosts of different nations in the 2017 BRICS Talk, a special program made by CGTN ahead of the ninth BRICS Summit. Based on systemic functional grammar (SFG) on the sub-systems of modality, five small corpora are established and quantified to investigate the number, frequency and distribution of modal verbs. Through the corpus-based research, the author finds that there are similarities and variations on the use of modal verbs in different anchors, which reveals different power relations behind their utterances. The findings are interpreted in terms of individual, cultural differences between the five moderators. This paper contributes to research that probes into power relations in the context of media from a CDA perspective and provides further understanding of modality in the public discourse.

ARTISTIC MODELS OF ADDICTIVE BEHAVIOR IN O. MYKOLAYCHUK AND NEDA NEZHDANA'S PLAY "HONORE, AND WHERE IS BALZAC?"

The article is devoted to the analysis of poetics of artistic models of protagonists' addictive behavior in the play by O. Mykolaychuk and Neda Nezhdana "Honore, and where is Balzac?". The relevance of the study is due to the notable increase in the number of interdisciplinary investigations. It contributes to a significant expansion of the range of aspects of research in the literature, especially the researches devoted to the analysis of works of art through the prism of psychology. This study was conducted using modeling, psychological and poetological analysis. The content of the concepts of "addiction" and "addictive behavior" was clarified; the potential signs of addiction that can be realized in the play were singled out, taking into account the specifics of the characterization of the characters in the play, and as a result, the models of addictive behavior were determined. Knote, Honore de Balzac and Evelina Hanska are carriers of addictive behavior and form a system of images-addicts in the play by O. Mykolaychuk and Neda Nezhdana "Honore, where is Balzac?". The interpersonal addiction of the characters is distinguished by three striking features: compulsive behavior, the reaction of the individual to the mention of his addiction or object of addiction, and manipulation of other people to achieve their own goals related to the object of addiction. Playwrights use a number of tools to create images of actors – representatives of addictive behavior, including lexical (the presence of specific tokens and their repetitions), morphological (a significant number of adjectives and verbs with negative connotations) and syntactic (incomplete sentences and exclamatory sentences, rhetorical questions, remarks-phrases, which are aimed at describing the actions and disclosing the internal state of the actors). Given the results, we see the prospect in further analysis of the poetics of artistic models of addictive behavior on the basis of other plays of modern Ukrainian drama, thus expanding the object of study.

The Effect of Fake Reviews on e-Commerce During and After Covid-19 Pandemic: SKL-Based Fake Reviews Detection

The outbreak of Covid-19 and the enforcement of lockdown, social distancing, and other precautionary measures lead to a global increase in online shopping. The increasing significance of online shopping and extensive use of e-commerce has increased competition between companies for online selling. Highlights that online reviews play a significant role in boosting a business or slandering it. Product review is an essential factor in customers’ decision-making, leading to an intense topic known as fraudulent or fake reviews detection. Given these reviews’ power over a business, the treacherous acts of giving false reviews for personal gains have increased with time. In our research, we proposed a fake review detection model by using Text Classification and techniques related to Machine Learning. We used classifiers such as Support Vector Machine, K-Nearest Neighbor, and logistic regression (SKL), using a bigram model that detects fraudulent reviews based on the number of pronouns, verbs, and sentiments. Our proposed methodology for detecting fake online reviews outperforms on the yelp dataset and the TripAdvisor dataset compared to other state-of-the-art techniques with 95% and 89.03% accuracy.

Coercion and Information Structure in English Progressive Construction with Achievement Verbs

English progressive aspect which characterizes dynamicity and duration illustrates an ongoing process at a specific temporal point or during a temporal interval; therefore, achievement verbs and stative verbs generally cannot be used in English progressive aspect, but a large number of achievement verbs indeed appear in English progressive aspect. Regarding it as a construction, this paper explains this abnormal phenomenon based on the notions of coercion in Construction Grammar. According to the analysis, it can be found that “dynamicity” and “duration” are the core constructional meanings of the English progressive construction. Additionally, a prototype-based category of the concept ACTIVITY with the main properties of “causal control”, “dynamicity”, and “duration” as its main properties is built. Scalar adjustment and conceptual metonymy matter a lot in the process of coercion. When coarse-grained scalar adjustment is adopted, achievement verbs are coerced into undirected activities or directed activities. Through this coercion, the English progressive construction with achievement verbs obtains the interpretation of repetition or overall trend. When fine-grained scalar adjustment is adopted, the achievement verb in the English progressive construction can refer to this neighbouring dynamic durative process through part-part metonymy, which contributes to the interpretation of preparatory stage or plan. Furthermore, the information structure of English progressive construction is also explored.

Modern Reorganization and Language Contact of the Chinese Vocabulary System

Abstract: After entering the 20th century, great changes have taken place in the Chinese language, especially in terms of vocabulary. This change is not a simple increase in the number of words, but reflects a paradigm shift. The change involves not only nouns, but also a large number of verbs and adjectives, which this article calls “modern reconstruction of vocabulary system”. This article argues that the realization of scientific narration based on the consistency of words and texts is the fundamental motivation of language modernization; the reconstruction of Chinese vocabulary system can be basically completed in a short period of time, mainly due to the language contact within the cultural circle of Chinese characters in East Asia, which is also an important driving force for the rapid two character transformation of Chinese vocabulary. This paper gives a bird’s-eye view of the nature, new concepts and new forms of lexicalization, especially the interaction between Chinese and Japanese vocabulary.

Фраземи західноподільських говірок із мотивом знаходження дитини

The article, based on the analysis of field ethnographic, folklore, dialectological data from Podillya, considers the nominations of traditional Ukrainian rites associated with the birth of a child, compares the phraseological units with the motive of finding a child. The material of the research was the author's records of phraseology according to a special program-questionnaire on the territory of Western Podillya (southern districts of Khmelnytsky region and eastern districts of Ternopil region). Emphasis is placed on the constant expressions of the traditional birth rite with attention to semantics, elements of spiritual and material culture. There are four groups of FD with the motive of finding a child: in different natural and landscape formations; in the aquatic environment, or nearby structures; in the building, its parts, adjacent buildings, household items, clothing (shoes); to denote a gift (tossing, sending, bringing, buying). Each group of FDs is divided into subgroups, which allow a clearer division of phrases on a figurative basis. Ethnographic dictionaries clarify the symbolism of the components of phraseological units: peas, cabbage, burdock, water, stork, angel, egg, well, river. It is determined that among the studied phraseological units the components with the highest variability of the child are distinguished by birds. A significant number of verbs to denote ways to find a child (found, bought, caught, brought, caught, got out, etc.) was found.

Hybrid Verbs of English Origin with the Suffix -inti Lithuanian Jargon: Morphology and Adaptive Features

The article analyses 198 hybrid verbs of English origin with the suffix -inti and 187 prefix derivatives from the Lithuanian slang and non-standard dictionary. The study reveals that borrows with affixal adaptation are always adapted to the linguistic system, because there weren’t any borrowed verbs without Lithuanian affix detected: phonetically adapted borrowed verbs from English are rare and used as adverbs. A small part of the verbs has no basic words, they are morphologically adapted with the suffix -inti. Word borrowing can be semantically based on the new meanings, but a number of verbs can be interpreted as trendy variants of non-standard language. Most of the verbs with the suffix -inti has basic words. The adaptation of the new borrowings is directly related with the popular suffixes of the Lithuanian standard language. Slang lexicon tends to copy standart language models and integrate into Lithuanian language derivative paradigms. Slang prefixes derived from basic verbs with the suffix -inti are formed regularly, slang derivatives take over the prefixes of the standard language.

Analysis of Connected Speech in Persian Aphasic Patients and its Relationship With Type and Severity of Aphasia

Background and Objectives: There are several tests to determine the type and severity of aphasia, but they take a long time to administer when assessing aphasic patients. In recent years, the analysis of spontaneous speech has gained great attention because it is important to diagnose and follow post-treatment improvement in aphasic patients. This study was done to assess some parameters of connected speech in aphasic patients. In addition, the correlation between connected speech parameters and the type and severity of aphasia was measured. Methods: We compared the connected speech parameters of 27 aphasics (10 fluent and 17 non-fluent), Persian speakers, compared with the control group. There were two groups matched by age, sex, and education. Nest’s bird story pictures were used to elicit a speech sample. In the next step, the connected speech was analyzed to define speech parameters, including speech rate, mean length of utterance, number of utterances, total words, content words, function words, nouns, and verbs. Moreover, the severity of aphasia was measured using a Persian Western Aphasia Battery (WAB). Results: The findings showed significant differences between groups in all parameters of the connected speech (P<0.01). The correlation coefficient between speech parameters and severity of aphasia demonstrated that all parameters were highly correlated (r >0.71) with the severity of aphasia (P<0.01) except for speech rate and the number of function words. There were some typical differences between linguistics grammatical and pragmatical characters of different types of aphasia. Conclusion: Connected speech is one of the most sensitive parts of language in all types of aphasic patients. There are some clinical signs for differential diagnosis of aphasia based on speech measures. According to the findings, the type and severity of aphasia and connected speech were highly correlated. Thus, the use of the connected speech analysis is necessary as an assessment tool for the diagnosis of aphasia.

Children's attention to numerical quantities relates to verbal number knowledge: An introduction to the Build-A-Train task.

Which dimension of a set of objects is more salient to young children: number or size? The 'Build-A-Train' task was developed and used to examine whether children spontaneously use a number or physical size approach on an un-cued matching task. In the Build-A-Train task, an experimenter assembles a train using one to five blocks of a particular length and asks the child to build the same train. The child's blocks differ in length from the experimenter's blocks, causing the child to build a train that matches based on either the number of blocks or length of the train, as it is not possible to match on both. One hundred and nineteen children between 2 years 2 months and 6 years 0months of age (M=4.05, SD=0.84) completed the Build-A-Train task, and the Give-a-Number task, a classic task used to assess children's conceptual knowledge of verbal number words. Across train lengths and verbal number knowledge levels, children used a number approach more than a size approach on the Build-A-Train task. However, children were especially likely to use a number approach over a size approach when they knew the verbal number word that corresponded to the quantity of blocks in the train, particularly for quantities smaller than four. Therefore, children's attention to number relates to their knowledge of verbal number words. The Build-A-Train task and findings from the current study set a foundation for future longitudinal research to investigate the causal relationship between children's acquisition of symbolic mathematical concepts and attention to number.

Korean Learners’ Acquisition and Use of Variable First-Person Subject Forms in Spanish

Within the scope of research that lies at the intersection of sociolinguistics and second language acquisition, there is a growing body of empirical work on learners’ acquisition of variable subject expression in Spanish. This research has been instrumental for demonstrating that second language (L2) learners acquire linguistic and social constraints on subject form use. The present study extends research on variable Spanish subject expression to an understudied learner population: native Korean-speaking learners. Interview data were examined for the range and frequency of first-person subject forms produced by Korean-speaking learners at four instructional levels as well as linguistic and individual (extralinguistic) predictors of subject use. Results showed that learners at each level produced primarily null subjects, and verb number, verb-form regularity, verb semantics, and use of Spanish outside of class significantly predicted use of an overt personal pronoun over null subjects.

On Aspect, Biaspectuality, and Tenses in the History of Polish

By common consent, one of the most characteristic categories of the Polish verb is aspect. There can be little doubt that the origin of the aspect category may lie in Proto-Slavic or much further back in the Proto-Indo- European language. It is a moot point whether the aspect was already a strong category in Proto-Slavic. Nonetheless, it is beyond dispute that the consequences of its emergence were far-reaching and took a relatively long time to clarify in the daughter languages. The various categories such as aspect, biaspectuality, and tense providing the main themes of the present paper were closely related and did interact, however, the essential effects of their interaction can only be identified by scrutiny. In Old Church Slavonic, a certain degree of competition between the category of aspect and that of tense can already be observed, and this is also evident in Old Polish, in which tenses like the aorist and the imperfect were slowly falling into disuse. Their occurrence is quite rare even in the earliest Polish written records. In due course, the perfect tense gained ground and the pluperfect became almost completely obsolete. In Modern Polish, the latter only serves to archaize literary texts. In the further stages of development, the aspectual opposition also extended to the future tenses thereby affecting the entire Polish tense system. Also, in the aspect-tense system of the Modern Polish language, the tendency of the category of aspect to prevail over the category of tense together with the gradual decline in the number of biaspectual verbs, still common in the 16th century, seems to be quite clear. Most of the originally biaspectual initial verbs were later perfectivized by means of prefixes. Thus, the simple verbal bases and their perfectivized derivatives could establish an aspectual partnership. In the case of verbs with foreign roots, the prefix z-/ s- played a pivotal role in perfectivation, while other prefixes such as za- and po- had a less important role. The process of perfectivation in Polish was so extensive that only few biaspectual verbs remained free of the opposition of aspect as reminders of the fact that the development of this category is still an ongoing process. This is also shown by the more recent biaspectual verbs with borrowed roots for which it can be anticipated that they will form their perfective counterparts soon. The paper concludes that the amount of verbs with an aspectually uncertain status is likely to be a reliable indicator of the development of the aspect category for the earlier periods in the history of the Polish language. An important role in this may play the diachronic corpus-based investigation, which, though for a long time considered a stepchild of Slavic aspectual research, may still help to clarify a number of issues related to the category of aspect.

DOUBLE-NUMBER MARKING MATTERS FOR BOTH L1 AND L2 PROCESSING OF NONLOCAL AGREEMENT SIMILARLY

AbstractThe present study uses event-related potentials (ERPs) to examine nonlocal agreement processing between native (L1) English speakers and Chinese–English second language (L2) learners, whose L1 lacks number agreement. We manipulated number marking with determiners (the vs. that/these) to see how determiner-specification influences both native and nonnative processing downstream for verbal number agreement. Behavioral and ERP results suggest both groups detected nonlocal agreement violations, indexed by a P600 effect. Moreover, the manipulation of determiner-number specification revealed a facilitation effect across the board in both grammaticality judgment and ERP responses for both groups: increased judgment accuracy and a larger P600 effect amplitude for sentences containing violations with demonstratives rather than bare determiners. Contrary to some claims regarding the potential for nonnative processing, the present data suggest that L1 and L2 speakers show similar ERP responses when processing agreement, even when the L1 lacks the relevant distinction.