Number Of Ovarioles Research Articles

Effect of directional selection for body size on fluctuating asymmetry in certain morphological traits in Drosophila ananassae

Variation in the subtle differences between the right and left sides of bilateral characters or fluctuating asymmetry (FA) has been considered as an indicator of an organism's ability to cope with genetic and environmental stresses during development. However, due to inconsistency in the results of empirical studies, the relationship between FA and stress has been the subject of intense debate. In this study, we investigated whether stress caused by artificial bidirectional selection for body size has any effect on the levels of FA of different morphological traits in Drosophila ananassae. The realised heritability (h2) was higher in low-line females and high-line males, which suggests an asymmetrical response to selection for body size. Further, the levels of FA were compared across 10 generations of selection in different selection lines in both sexes for sternopleural bristle number, wing length, wing-to-thorax ratio, sex combtooth number and ovariole number. The levels of FA differed significantly among generations and selection lines but did not change markedly with directional selection. However, the levels of FA were higher in the G10 generation (at the end of selection) than G0 (at the start of selection) but lower than the G5 generation in different selection lines, suggesting that the levels of FA are not affected by the inbreeding generated during the course of selection. Also, the levels of FA in the hybrids of high and low lines were signifi cantly lower than the parental selection lines, suggesting that FA is influenced by hybridisation. These results are discussed in the framework of the literature available on FA and its relationship with stress.

A contribution to the karyosystematics of the planthopper families Dictyopharidae and Fulgoridae (Hemiptera: Auchenorrhyncha)

The chromosome complements of thirteen species of the planthopper family Dictyopharidae are described and illustrated. For each species, the structure of testes and, on occasion, ovaries is additionally outlined in terms of the number of seminal follicles and ovarioles. The data presented cover the tribes Nersiini, Scoloptini and Dictyopharini of the subfamily Dictyopharinae and the tribes Ranissini, Almanini, and Orgeriini of the Orgeriinae. The data on the tribes Nersiini and Orgeriini are provided for the first time. Males of Hyalodictyon taurinum and Trimedia cf. viridata (Nersiini) have 2n = 26 + X; Scolops viridis, S. sulcipes, and S. abnormis (Scoloptini) 2n = 36 + X; Callodictya krueperi (Dictyopharini) 2n = 26 + X; Ranissus edirneus and Schizorgerius scytha (Ranissini) 2n = 26 + X. Males of Almana longipes and Bursinia cf. genei (Almanini) have 2n = 26 + X and 2n = 24 + XY, respec- tively. The latter chromosome complement was not recorded previously for the tribe Almanini. Males of Orgerius ventosus and Deserta cf. bipunctata (Orgeriini) have 2n = 26 + X. The testes of males of A. longipes and B. cf. genei each have 4 seminal follicles, which is characteristic of the tribe Almanini. Males of all other species have 6 follicles per testis. When the ovaries of a species were also studied, the number of ovarioles was coincident with that of seminal follicles. For comparison, Capocles podli- paevi (2n = 24 + X and 6 follicles per testis in males) from the Fulgoridae, the sister family to Dictyopharidae, was also studied. We supplemented all the data obtained with our earlier observations on Dictyopharidae. The chromosomal complement of 2n = 28 + X or that of 2n = 26 + X and 6 follicles per testis are suggested to be the ancestral condition among Dictyopharidae, from which taxa with various chromosome numbers and testes each with 4 follicles have differentiated.

Honeybee Social Regulatory Networks Are Shaped by Colony‐Level Selection

Social interactions pervade all aspects of life in the social insects. Networks of interacting nestmates enable the maintenance of colony homeostasis and regulation of brood development. Artificial colony-level selection on the amount of pollen stored in honeybee colonies has produced high- and low-pollen-hoarding strains that have been used as a model system to study the genetic and physiological basis of differences in forager behavior that contribute to colony-level differences in pollen hoarding. Here we extend this model system using an interacting-phenotypes approach that explicitly studies genetic components arising from social interactions. High- and low-pollen-hoarding-strain larvae were reared in hives with high- or low-strain older larvae and high- or low-strain adult workers. The ovariole number and dry mass of focal individuals depended on interactions between the genotypes of the focal individuals and their brood and adult worker nestmates. These results show that trait expression by individual honeybee workers is modulated by the genotypic composition of the colony, indicating that individual-level phenotypes are properties of the composite "sociogenome." Thus, colony-level selection has produced strains with distinct combinations of socially interacting genes, which make up the social networks that regulate development and expressed phenotypes.

Effects of sublethal x-ray doses on the number of ovarioles in Drosophila melanogaster populations.

An analysis of the effect of irradiation of the larval ovary on the number of ovarioles has been carried out. Two populations of Drosophila melanogaster with different irradiation background, namely one which had been subjected to irradiation at gonial stage during a large number of generations and the other, which was used parallelly as its control, were tested in this investigation. In the main, doses which do not cause any reduction in the number of individuals treated were applied. Irradiation causes an increase of the number of ovarioles in the females of both populations. The increase is significantly higher in populations which were not subjected to irradiation earlier.

A role for sexual conflict in the evolution of reproductive traits in Nasonia wasps?

Abstract Sexual conflict theory predicts that female and male reproductive traits coevolve resulting in disruption of reproductive behaviour upon mating of individuals from diverged populations. We used interfertile species of haplodiploid Nasonia wasps to compare re-mating frequency, longevity, oviposition rate and sperm use of conspecifically and heterospecifically mated females. Females that first mated with a heterospecific male re-mated more often a second time, indicating that conspecific males reduce female receptivity more. Mating did not affect female lifespan. Lifetime production of sons and daughters was significantly reduced in heterospecifically mated females. Dissection of females confirmed that heterospecific sperm survives equally well as conspecific sperm during storage in the spermatheca. Differences in daily fecundity and age at which females become sperm depleted could in part be explained by species differences in ovariole numbers. We conclude that sexual conflict may play a role in the evolution of female mating rate, fecundity and sex allocation in Nasonia.

Variations in body melanisation, ovariole number and fecundity in highland and lowland populations of Drosophila melanogaster from the Indian subcontinent

AbstractWe investigated geographical variations in three fitness‐related traits (body melanisation, ovariole number and fecundity) in laboratory‐reared offspring of 10 populations of Drosophila melanogaster. The populations were collected from adjacent lowland and highland localities (∼80–100 km apart) in the tropical as well as subtropical regions (11.15–31.06 °N) covering a linear distance about 3 000 kilometers from south to north on the Indian subcontinent. Persistence of within‐as well as between‐population differences at 21 °C suggest that observed variations in fitness‐related traits have a genetic basis. Populations from higher altitudes showed consistently higher trait values (1.4‐fold increase) as compared with their corresponding lowland populations. By contrast, latitudinal variations were about two‐fold higher across the entire continent. Along latitude as well as altitude, population means showed higher correlation values (r > 0.98) between all the three fitness traits. However, on the basis of within‐population analysis (assorted darker and lighter flies), changes in body melanisation were significantly correlated with fecundity but not with ovariole number. Thus, analysis of within‐population trait variability should be preferred as compared with data on population means for adaptive significance of fitness‐related traits. In the present study, the role of climatic selection is evident from regression analysis with changes in annual average temperature of the sites of origin of populations along latitude as well as altitude.

Morphometric condition as a measure of energetic content and reproductive potential in Dactylotum variegatum

Morphometric condition (i.e., condition estimated from some aspect of body size) is frequently calculated from mass-size residuals, and is often used to infer something about an animal's energetic state. However, controversy exists about the validity of using mass-size residuals for this purpose. Recent work suggests the approach is appropriate in mammals, but it is unclear if morphometric condition is useful in the context of understanding the energetic state of grasshoppers and whether differences in morphometric condition are associated with variation in fecundity-related characteristics in females. To address this question, I examined male and female Dactylotum variegatum, sampled from a mosaic of grazed and ungrazed grasslands in southeastern Arizona, to determine whether morphometric condition corresponded with lipid and glycogen levels in males and a variety of reproductive characteristics in females. D. variegatum was found to be strongly sexually dimorphic relative to mass and femur length. The relationship between mass and femur length was linear for both males and females, an important assumption underlying the use of mass-size residuals as a measure of condition. Structurally larger males had more lipid and glycogen content. After controlling for the effect of size on lipid and glycogen content, a positive relationship was found between morphometric condition and lipid and glycogen levels, although the relationship was relatively weak for glycogen. In females, femur length, mass, and morphometric condition were not significantly associated with the number of ovarioles or the mean number of eggs or corpora lutea per ovariole. Only the mean number of resorption bodies per ovariole was significantly related to mass and morphometric condition, with larger and better conditioned females having fewer resorption bodies. The results of this study suggest that mass-size residuals in this species of grasshopper are related to energetic condition, but that other factors, such as variation in water and protein content, may weaken the relationship. Morphometric condition probably has limited value in estimating fitness of wild-caught D. variegatum females.

Population and environmental effects on the size-fecundity relationship in a common grasshopper across an aridity gradient

Body size is of primary interest to biologists because of its often positive correlation with fitness, in particular fecundity. The size-fecundity relationship is well established both within and among species. However, little is known about how the size-fecundity relationship differs among populations of the same species or whether it differs in response to environmental conditions experienced by a single population. This study examines the size-fecundity relationship in the pallid-winged grasshopper (Trimerotropis pallidipennis: Acrididae, Oedipodinae) among seven populations that extend along an aridity gradient in the southwestern United States. Results showed a positive relationship between body size of field-caught females and precipitation along the gradient, but only among those populations that receive less than 12 cm rainfall a year. There was a positive relationship between body size and the number of mature oocyte in the ovaries and with the number of hatchlings. Potential fecundity, measured as the number of ovarioles, was not correlated with body size in any analysis. All analyses showed that populations differ in their size-fecundity relationships. This relationship was also examined in laboratory conditions that mimic years of high,versus low, food abundance. Results indicate that across the whole aridity gradient, the size-fecundity relationship is largely a function of available resources. The populations at the xeric end of the gradient however, change their reproductive strategy in years of low food abundance and invest more into reproduction per unit size than they do in years of high food abundance. Together, these results caution against assuming, a priori, a positive relationship between size and fecundity; results indicate this relationship depends on the measure of fecundity used, that populations can differ in this relationship and that this relationship can change with changes in environmental conditions. Last, when examined among individuals, body size explained less than 20% of the variation in fecundity, suggesting that body size is not the main determinant of reproductive success in this species.

Fluctuating Asymmetry in Hybrids of Sibling Species, Drosophila ananassae and Drosophila pallidosa, Is Trait and Sex Specific

Due to inconsistent results of the empirical studies, the relationship between fluctuating asymmetry (FA, a measure of developmental stability) and interspecific hybridization has been the subject of intense debates. In the present study, we have assessed the impact of interspecific hybridization between 2 sibling species of Drosophila: Drosophila ananassae and Drosophila pallidosa on the levels of FA over 3 generations. Trait size of different morphological traits, namely, sternopleural bristle number, wing length (WL), wing to thorax (W/T) ratio, sex comb tooth number (SCTN), and ovariole number differed significantly among parental species and their hybrids of different generations in both the sexes. However, the levels of FA of different morphological traits were similar in parental species and their hybrids of different generations in males (except SCTN) and in females (except for WL and W/T ratio). These results are interpreted in terms of developmental stability as a function of a balance between the level of heterozygosity and the disruption of coadapted gene complexes.

Toxicity of spiromesifen to the developmental stages of Bemisia tabaci biotype B

Spiromesifen is a novel insecticidal/acaricidal compound derived from spirocyclic tetronic acids that acts effectively against whiteflies and mites via inhibition of acetyl-CoA-carboxylase, a lipid metabolism enzyme. The effects of spiromesifen on the developmental stages of the whitefly Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) were studied under laboratory conditions to generate baseline action thresholds for field evaluations of the compound. Adult B. tabaci mortality rate after spiromesifen treatment (5 mg L(-1)) was 40%. Treatment with 0.5 mg L(-1) reduced fecundity per female by more than 80%, and fertility was almost nil. LC(50) for eggs was 2.6 mg L(-1), and for first instar 0.5 mg L(-1). Scanning electron microscopy revealed that eggs laid by treated adult females had an abnormally perforated chorion, and females were unable to complete oviposition. Light and fluorescent microscopy showed significantly smaller eggs following treatment, and smaller, abnormally formed and improperly localized bacteriomes in eggs and nymphs. The number of ovarioles counted in females treated with 5 mg L(-1) was significantly reduced. Spiromesifen showed no cross-resistance with other commonly used insecticides from different chemical groups, and resistance monitoring in Israel showed no development of field resistance to this insecticide after 1 year of use. The strong effect on juvenile stages of B. tabaci with a unique mode of action and the absence of cross-resistance with major commonly used insecticides from different chemical groups suggest the use of spiromesifen in pest and resistance management programmes.

Quantitative trait loci affecting phenotypic plasticity and the allometric relationship of ovariole number and thorax length in Drosophila melanogaster.

Environmental factors during juvenile growth such as temperature and nutrition have major effects on adult morphology and life-history traits. In Drosophila melanogaster, ovary size, measured as ovariole number, and body size, measured as thorax length, are developmentally plastic traits with respect to larval nutrition. Herein we investigated the genetic basis for plasticity of ovariole number and body size, as well the genetic basis for their allometric relationship using recombinant inbred lines (RILs) derived from a natural population in Winters, California. We reared 196 RILs in four yeast concentrations and measured ovariole number and body size. The genetic correlation between ovariole number and thorax length was positive, but the strength of this correlation decreased with increasing yeast concentration. Genetic variation and genotype-by-environment (G x E) interactions were observed for both traits. We identified quantitative trait loci (QTL), epistatic, QTL-by-environment, and epistatic-by-environment interactions for both traits and their scaling relationships. The results are discussed in the context of multivariate trait evolution.

Effects of larval diet on female reproductive output of the European coccinellid Adalia bipunctata and the invasive species Harmonia axyridis (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)

Cannibalism and intraguild predation (IGP) are both common phenomena amongst aphidophagous coccinellids and serve as vital alternative feeding strategies which can prolong survival during periods of aphid scarcity. A reduction in essential prey den- sity and the acceptance of conspecific or heterospecific prey are likely to have a considerable influence on both larval development and adult reproduction. However, little is known about the legacy of larval diet on adult performance. This paper considers the effects of the diet provided to larvae of Harmonia axyridis (Pallas) and Adalia bipunctata (Linnaeus) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) on the reproductive output of the resulting females. Results showed that larval diets, including treatments analogous to competition and IGP, did not affect adult longevity, ovipositional lag, proportion of eggs laid in clutches or ovariole number in H. axyridis or A. bipunctata. However, some variation in the maximum clutch size and oviposition rate was seen. A larval diet of unlimited aphids resulted in the largest clutches of eggs being laid by both species. The total number of eggs laid over 30 days was largest for H. axy- ridis when larvae were reared on unlimited aphids or limited aphids supplemented with either conspecific or heterospecific eggs, whereas oviposition was lower for A. bipunctata females that had received conspecific or heterospecific eggs in their larval diets. The results have also enabled us to make some general comparisons of reproductive parameters between the two species, and to refute the hypothesis that the maximum clutch size laid by a female ladybird is limited by the number of ovarioles within an ovary. We conclude that IGP of A. bipunctata eggs by H. axyridis larvae has a positive effect on reproductive output and is therefore likely to further contribute to the spread and increase of H. axyridis in Britain.

Variability and genetic basis for migratory behaviour in a spring population of the aphid,Aphis gossypiiGlover in the Yangtze River Valley of China

The population dynamics, development of gonads, takeoff and flight behaviour of Aphis gossypii Glover were investigated in order to test whether there was variation of migratory ability in the spring population. Field surveys showed that not all the aphids overwintering on hibiscus migrated to the secondary host plants, and the host-alternating and host-specific life-cycle forms coexisted in Nanjing, China. Substantial variation in flight capacity of winged individuals, development of gonads and takeoff behaviour were found within the spring population. The frequency distribution of flight duration and the number of ovarioles per individual alatae exhibited two peaks, representing the migratory and sedentary genotypes, respectively. Significant response to directional selection on takeoff behaviour demonstrated the additive genetic component of this variation. Selection for 'takeoff' individuals caused a significant increase in takeoff angle from 39.8 degrees in the first selection to 68.7 degrees in the fifth; and, hence, screened out the migratory genotype (M), while selection for the sedentary individuals increased the rate of non-takeoffs significantly, and screened out the sedentary genotype (S). The reciprocal cross, M(female) x S(male), produced hybrid offspring performing significantly steeper takeoff angles compared with those from the cross S(female) x M(male), suggesting the presence of a maternal effect. On the other hand, takeoff rate was ranked as M(female) x S(male)=S(female) x M(male)>M>S, involving no sex-linkage and maternal effect. The coexistence of host-alternating and host-specific life-cycle forms of A. gossypii on the primary host has, as deduced from the present studies, a genetic basis.

Climatic adaptations of body melanisation in Drosophila melanogaster from Western Himalayas

We investigated population divergence in body melanisation in wild samples of Drosophila melanogaster across an elevational gradient (512 - 2202m) in the Western Himalayas. Wild populations are characterized by higher phenotypic variability as compared with laboratory populations. Significant differences in elevational slope values for three posterior abdominal segments (5th, 6th and 7th) in wild versus laboratory populations suggest plastic effects. However, elevational slope values do not differ for the three anterior abdominal segments (2nd, 3rd and 4th). Thus, elevational changes in melanisation include genetic as well as plastic effects. Fitness consequences of within population variability were analyzed on the basis of assorted darker and lighter flies from two highland as well as from two lowland localities. There is lack of correlation of melanisation with body size as well as ovariole number in assorted darker and lighter flies. For each population, darker flies showed higher desiccation resistance, lower rate of water loss, longer copulation duration and greater fecundity as compared with lighter flies. Phenotypic variations in body melanisation can be interpreted in relation with seasonal changes in temperature as well as humidity (Tcv and RHcv) of the sites of origin of populations. Thus, elevational changes in body melanisation may represent genetic response to selection pressures imposed by colder and drier climatic conditions in the Western Himalayas.

Effect of Mutations on Developmental Stability and Canalization in Morphological Traits in Drosophila ananassae

The present study was designed to determine the effects of visible mutations of large effect on developmental stability and canalization in different morphological traits, namely, sternopleural bristle number, wing length, wing to thorax ratio, ovariole number, and sex comb tooth number (SCTN) in Drosophila ananassae. We have compared the mean trait size, fluctuating asymmetry (FA) (as an index of developmental stability), and morphological variation (as an index of canalization) of different mutant strains (yellow body color, y; claret eye color, ca; plexus wing, px; spread wing, spr; ebony body and sepia eye color, e se; yellow body and claret eye color, y ca; and cardinal eye color, curled wing, and ebony body color, cd cu e) with wild-type strain. The mean trait size of all morphological traits differs significantly among the wild-type and mutant strains. The wild-type and mutant strains vary significantly for the morphological variation and also for the levels of the FA in different morphological traits. However, we have found no increase in either the variance or in the degree of FA with the increase of the mutations (except in SCTN in y mutant). The plausible reasons for the variation in wild-type and mutant strains with particular reference to developmental stability and canalization have been discussed.

Inheritance of Traits Associated with Reproductive Potential in Apis mellifera capensis and Apis mellifera scutellata Workers

When workers of the thelytokous Cape honeybee, Apis mellifera capensis, come into contact with colonies of the neighboring arrhenotokous subspecies Apis mellifera scutellata, they can become lethal social parasites. We examined the inheritance of 3 traits (number of ovarioles, number of basitarsal hairs, and size of spermatheca) that are thought to be associated with reproductive potential in A. m. capensis workers. To do so, we produced hybrid A. m. scutellata/A. m. capensis queens and backcrossed them to either A. m. capensis or A. m. scutellata drones. We then measured the 3 traits in parental, hybrid, and backcross offspring. We show that the 3 traits are phenotypically correlated. We also show that the expression of ovariole number, basitarsal hairs, and size of spermatheca is influenced by the genotype of the individual and the rearing environment but that the influence of the rearing environment is less important to the number of ovarioles. We hypothesize a single recessive allele (l), present at high frequency in natural A. m. capensis populations, which when homozygous causes larvae to elicit more food. This increased feeding as larvae causes resulting adult workers to develop more queen-like morphology and increased reproductive potential. The number of ovarioles, in contrast, appears to be under independent genetic control.

Seasonal cycle of colony structure in the Ponerine ant Pachycondyla chinensis in western Japan (Hymenoptera, Formicidae)

Investigation of reproductive strategies of ants in the subfamily Ponerinae is important for understanding of the evolution of social structure and of the significance of caste dimorphisms. The biology of species with mated and egg-laying workers (gamergates) has been studied for many species, however, little attention has been paid to species that reproduce via alate queens only. We investigated the seasonal cycle of changes in the colony structure of Pachycondyla chinensis reproduced by alate queens in western Japan, and found the following novel biological characteristics of this species. P. chinensis showed a remarkable caste dimorphism in ovariole numbers: workers had no ovaries while queens had 18 to 36 ovarioles in their ovaries. The nesting system seemed to be polydomous: 266 of 400 nests collected were queenless. The number of queenless nests increased during the reproductive season. Among the 134 queenright nests, 38 had several mated-queens without significant differences in ovary activation and the remaining 96 nests were monogynous. During winter to early spring, most nests were polygynous. After alate production, most of the old queens seemed to die or be expelled and replaced by new queens. Virgin dealated queens were often found and they seemed to have laid eggs.

Variability of fluctuating asymmetry in ovariole number of Drosophila subobscura caused by microclimatic difference

Variability of fluctuating asymmetry in ovariole number of Drosophila subobscura caused by microclimatic difference

Effect of developmental temperature stress on fluctuating asymmetry in certain morphological traits in Drosophila ananassae

In the present study, the effect of thermal stress on the variability and fluctuating asymmetry (FA) in different morphological traits, viz., thorax length (TL), sternopleural bristle number (SBN), wing length (WL), wing-to-thorax (W/T) ratio, sex comb tooth number (SCTN) and ovariole number (ON), was investigated in 10 isofemale lines of Drosophila ananassae. The phenotypic and genetic variability is higher in the flies reared at low (20 °C) and at high (30 °C) temperatures as compared to that of standard (25 °C) temperature. Further, the levels of FA of measured traits differed significantly among the three temperature regimes except SBN and SCTN in males and SBN and W/T ratio in females. Moreover, the magnitude of positional fluctuating asymmetry is similar in males reared at three different developmental temperatures for SBN and SCTN but it varies significantly for SBN in females. However, when FA across all the traits was combined into a composite index (CFA), significant differences were found for both temperature regimes and sexes. Males showed higher CFA at 30 °C whereas in females it was higher at 20 °C. The results suggest that temperature increases the levels of variability and FA but the effect seems to be trait and sex specific in D. ananassae.

Notes on the Reproductive Morphology of the Parasitic Bee Megalopta byroni (Hymenoptera: Halictidae), and a Tentative New Host Record

W 079.72997), in nearby secondary forests near Gamboa, and in the Barro Colorado Nature Monument. Nests were collected in the field, and opened in the laboratory to collect resident adults and brood. The metasoma of each parasite was preserved in formalin and later dissected under light microscopy. The number of ovarioles per ovary was counted, as well as the number of yellow bodies. The width of the largest ovariole and the width of the Dufour’s gland were measured using an ocular micrometer. Means are given with their standard deviations. In 2005 only 2.7% of 75 nests contained an adult parasite, and in 2006 none of the 114 nests were parasitized (overall parasitism rate, ,1%). The first parasite was found in late June (beginning of the wet season) in a nest with two M. ecuadoria females and three open and empty brood cells. Thus, the new host record is tentative until it is confirmed with rearing records. The second parasite was found in a nest of M. genalis in early August. The nest was inhabited by a single M. genalis female and there were no cells in the nest, so apparently it was in an early stage of construction. Almost nothing is known on the biology of M. byroni, and we do not know if it is a cleptoparasite or a social parasite. Given the social flexibility of the host bees (i.e., some bees are solitary and some social) (Wcislo et al., 2004), this classification might not fit at all, and host-parasite relationships might depend also on the social status of particular nests. These two potential host species, M. genalis and M. ecuadoria, are sympatric in Panama, which is the only locality record for M. byroni. Both parasites had three ovarioles per ovary, which is the plesiomorphic number for Halictidae, including parasitic forms (Rozen, 2003), and the width of the largest ovariole was 0.45 mm for both parasites. By comparison, the resident M. ecuadoria had a mean ovariole width of 0.75 mm, slightly larger than the M. ecuadoria population mean of 0.37 mm 6 0.16 (N 5 54) and the M. genalis population mean of 0.41 mm 6 0.18 (N 5 59). Furthermore, the first parasite, collected in June, had 12 yellow bodies, while the second one, collected in August, had only one. In contrast, the nestmates had no yellow bodies, and the M. ecuadoria population mean was 0.32 6 0.96 (N 5 54) yellow bodies, and 1.16 6 2.65 (N 5 59) for M.