Norwegian Farms Research Articles

Performance of the Norwegian dairy farms: A dynamic stochastic approach

From a theoretical perspective, it is well stated that the farm's decision on the use of inputs depends on the farmer's ability to make an efficient decision over time. The existing literature in performance analysis of the dairy farms based on static modeling and thus ignores the inter-temporal nature of production decisions. This paper aims to construct a dynamic stochastic production frontier incorporating the sluggish adjustment of inputs, to measure the performance of dairy farms in Norway. The empirical application focused on the farm-level analysis of the Norwegian dairy sector for 2000- 2018. The dynamic frontier estimated using the system Generalized Method of Moments estimator. The analysis shows that the static model in the previous studies underestimates the performance of the dairy farms.

Parasites under pressure: salmon lice have the capacity to adapt to depth-based preventions in aquaculture

The evolution of pesticide resistance has driven renewed interest in non-chemical pest controls in agriculture. Spatial manipulations (physical barriers and fallowing, for example) can be an effective method of prevention, but these too might impose selection and cause rapid adaptation in pests. In salmon aquaculture, various non-chemical approaches have emerged to combat parasitic salmon lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) – a major pest with clear signs of evolved chemical resistance. ‘Depth-based’ preventions, now widely implemented, reduce infestation rates by physically segregating salmon from lice in their infective copepodid stage occurring in surface waters. Copepodids distributed deeper in the water column, however, can bypass these barriers and infest farms. If swimming depth is a heritable trait, we may see rapid evolutionary shifts in response to widespread depth-based prevention. We collected lice from Norwegian salmon farms and assayed more than 11,250 of their laboratory-reared offspring across 37 families. The vertical distributions of copepodids were measured using experimental water columns pressurised to simulate conditions at 0, 5 and 10 m depths. We demonstrated that lice respond strongly to hydrostatic pressure: an increase in pressure doubled the number of lice that migrated to the top of columns. There was also a large effect of family on this response, with the percentage of lice ascending to the top of pressurised columns ranging from 17 to 79% across families. Families with a weak swimming response to pressure are expected to occur deeper in the water column and so be more likely to infest farms employing depth-based preventions. If this between-family variation reflects genetic variation, then the parasite population may have the capacity to adapt to preventative measures. Such adaptation would have important commercial and ecological implications.

Data to estimate costs of producing grass-clover silages.

This article presents input data and procedures used to estimate costs of producing grass-clover silages under Norwegian farming conditions. Data of yield, botanical composition and forage quality of the grass crop were derived from a field experiment comparing a three-cut system, harvested at early crop maturity stages producing highly digestible forages, and a two-cut system returning higher herbage yields of medium digestibility. Secondary data on prices of specific inputs were also provided. The data presented here can be used by advisors and farmers as a decision support tool for assessing and comparing costs of different ways of producing silage. Cost estimates of home-grown forages are also needed in bio-economic evaluations of grassland production and utilization by researchers. The data presented is related to the research article entitled: “Technical and economic performance of alternative feeds in dairy and pig production” [1].

Green transformation is a boundary object: An analysis of conceptualisation of transformation in Norwegian primary industries

The concept of green transformation is burgeoning in the academic literature and policy discourses, yet few empirical studies investigate what the concept actually means to diverse actors, and how it manifests in practices. This paper contributes to filling that gap. Through an analysis of policy documents and interviews, we investigate how central policy actors and interest organisations in Norwegian farming, fisheries and aquaculture conceptualise and enact transformation. The analysis of the policy documents shows that the concept ‘transformation’ is mentioned more frequently, and a rhetoric with close connotations to green growth is increasingly applied, which may leave the impression that there is consensus concerning what the concept means and entails. The interviews however leave a more nuanced picture. Among most of the actors, transformation is interpreted in terms of green growth, while a minority of the actors argue for a deeper sustainability, pointing to planetary limits. Clearly, what transformation is and what it entails is embedded in interpretive flexibility. The concept ‘transformation’ is plastic enough to be applied in several different, and partly conflicting, policy discourses and arenas. We argue that transformation can be understood as a boundary object, and different actors perform different sorts of boundary work to adapt the boundary object of ‘transformation’ to fit their agendas. Thus, it makes more sense to think of transformation in plural – transformations – instead of a single, consensual discourse. We find that the very practices of most of the actors are not transformative in the theoretical understanding of the concept and that inadequate attention is given to potential negative sides of transformation. Consequently, both scholarly and practical discussions on how to achieve transformation should take into account that different and (partly) conflicting interpretations will continue to exist and contribute to distinguish between different degrees of sustainability and related pathways.

Blue bioeconomy localities at the margins: Reconnecting Norwegian seaweed farming and Finnish small-scale lake fisheries with blue policies

The blue bioeconomy is gaining momentum in EU policy debate and various national government strategies as a pathway towards a more sustainable society. Linked to the circularity of economic processes, it combines the promise of (regional) economic development with a sustainable, bio-based transition focused on increased and novel utilisation of aquatic resources. Nonetheless, portrayed as a holistic approach, the political visions of blue bioeconomy reside predominantly in marine environments with little integration of freshwater perspectives or alternative development paths. Rooted in concepts of policy mobility, assembling processes and the positionalities of involved entities, this paper displays two regionally embedded blue bioeconomy developments – Norwegian coastal seaweed farming and Finnish lake fisheries – and their spatially diverse reconnections with national and international policy narratives. By framing a freshwater and a coastal marine case, and their spatial reconnections with an overarching yet diversely translated policy realm, the paper taps into the multiple ontologies of water in blue bioeconomy governance and presents initial empirical and methodological steps towards a relational understanding of its governance processes. Based on four key topical reconnections, the article points to a variety of challenging mismatches between policy narratives, local development processes and potentials. It also suggests conceptual and methodological implications of this approach for further research into “blue” resource governance.

Determinants of capital structure in the Norwegian salmon aquaculture industry

Determinants of firm-level capital structure in the Norwegian salmon farming industry, which is a highly cyclical industry, are investigated with an emphasis on differences between listed and private companies. Capital structure is represented by long- and short-term debt, total debt, and liquidity. Using a unique panel data set of all Norwegian salmon farming companies, the econometric results show that profitability is negatively linked to short-term and total debt, and positively associated with liquidity; i.e., growth firms have lower liquidity. The listed firms rely less on long- and short-term debt (and hence total debt) than do unlisted firms, and have higher liquidity, which may reduce their bankruptcy risk, but can lead to a lower return. The results are reviewed in light of the theories of capital structure and should be useful for salmon farming companies and firms in other cyclical industries to evaluate the benefits of going public.

Comparison of Norwegian health and welfare regulatory frameworks in salmon and chicken production

AbstractThe health and welfare of farmed fish are often regarded with less concern than for other production animals. This review compares the Norwegian legal health and welfare frameworks for broiler chickens and farmed salmon, with the aim of improving regulations for salmon farming in Norway. Highlighting differences in laws, regulations and governmental organisation are also highly relevant in general, especially in developing welfare regulations for farmed fish in other countries. Norwegian chicken farmers must comply with two main laws, the Norwegian Animal Welfare Act and the Food Act, governed by the same ministry and governmental agency. The salmon farmers must in addition relate to the Aquaculture Act, different ministries and several agencies with different objectives. Compared to the regulation of chicken farming, the regulation of salmon farming is more complex, has potentially conflicting aims and uses less positive welfare phrasings. Thus, the regulation may be perceived as focusing on profitability over welfare. Despite having many similar paragraphs to regulation for chicken farming, salmon farming regulation is less strict in the daily securing of animals and recordings of mortality. There is no specified slaughterhouse control of high‐density productions, as there is for broiler chickens. There are also differences in the mandatory welfare courses, one being that infection prevention is a stated topic for chickens. The Norwegian Animal Welfare Act has no possibility of dispensation, meaning exceptions, and treats fish and other animals equally. Future regulatory frameworks for farmed fish production should avoid unintended downgrading of fish health and welfare.

Supervised machine learning is superior to indicator value inference in monitoring the environmental impacts of salmon aquaculture using eDNA metabarcodes.

Increasing anthropogenic impact and global change effects on natural ecosystems has prompted the development of less expensive and more efficient bioassessments methodologies. One promising approach is the integration of DNA metabarcoding in environmental monitoring. A critical step in this process is the inference of ecological quality (EQ) status from identified molecular bioindicator signatures that mirror environmental classification based on standard macroinvertebrate surveys. The most promising approaches to infer EQ from biotic indices (BI) are supervised machine learning (SML) and the calculation of indicator values (IndVal). In this study we compared the performance of both approaches using DNA metabarcodes of bacteria and ciliates as bioindicators obtained from 152 samples collected from seven Norwegian salmon farms. Results from standard macroinvertebrate-monitoring of the same samples were used as reference to compare the accuracy of both approaches. First, SML outperformed the IndVal approach to infer EQ from eDNA metabarcodes. The Random Forest (RF) algorithm appeared to be less sensitive to noisy data (a typical feature of massive environmental sequence data sets) and uneven data coverage across EQ classes (a typical feature of environmental compliance monitoring scheme) compared to a widely used method to infer IndVals for the calculation of a BI. Second, bacteria allowed for a more accurate EQ assessment than ciliate eDNA metabarcodes. For the implementation of DNA metabarcoding into routine monitoring programmes to assess EQ around salmon aquaculture cages, we therefore recommend bacterial DNA metabarcodes in combination with SML to classify EQ categories based on molecular signatures.

First record of experimentally induced salmon gill poxvirus disease (SGPVD) in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.)

Salmon gill poxvirus (SGPV) infection is a common denominator in many cases of complex gill disease in the Norwegian salmon farming industry and may, as a single agent infection, result in salmon poxvirus disease (SGPVD). Experiences from the field suggest that stress may be a decisive factor for the induction of SGPVD. Here we investigated the effect of stress hormone treatment on SGPV kinetics and disease development. In our experiment, Atlantic salmon were divided into four groups. Two groups of fish received an intraperitoneal injection of hydrocortisone dissolved in a fatty vehicle, whereas fish in the other two groups received a sham injection of the vehicle. After 24 h, one group with hydrocortisone injection and one with sham injection were exposed to dead SGPV-infected fish. Plasma cortisol level, virus kinetics, virus localization, and pathological gill were monitored for 4 weeks post-exposure. Hydrocortisone injected fish displayed higher plasma cortisol and SGPV loads than non-hydrocortisone treated fish. Signs of SGPVD and ensuing mortality appeared only in fish exposed to the virus and injected with hydrocortisone around 2 weeks post-exposure. No clinical signs of disease or mortality were recorded in the other groups. Further, gill histopathology in diseased fish correlated well with SGPV load, with the infection apparently confined to gill epithelial cells. The current findings suggest elevated plasma cortisol being a prerequisite for the development of SGPVD and recommend minimization of stressful farming activities, particularly if SGPV infection has been previously identified.

Chemical assessment of marine sediments in vicinity of Norwegian fish farms – A pilot study

While aquaculture is growing rapidly all over the world and generating many economic benefits, so have the environmental concerns about the externalities posed by the fish-farming industry. The distribution profiles of organic compounds and inorganic elements were explored in marine surface sediments collected in proximity of two active Norwegian fish farms, Hestøya and Nørholmen (<200–1100 m from the perimeter edge of the installations). Overall, the sediment organic matter (SOM) content was 7.3 ± 4.9%, with 7.9 ± 5.1% and 4.0 ± 0.5% for Hestøya and Nørholmen, respectively. A non-targeted analysis was performed for screening organic compounds in marine sediments, and the presence of 60 compounds was detected. Among suspect compounds were alkanes, alkenes, aromatics, aldehydes, ketones, esters, alcohols, diols, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), terpenes and terpenoids. Heptanal, benzaldehyde, 4-oxoisophorone, 1,7-dimethylnaphthalene and 3-bromophenol were the most abundant compounds in marine sediments. In total, concentrations of 47 elements were measured, concentrations of As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mo, Ni, Sn and Zn were strongly influenced by anthropogenic inputs, while concentrations of Ce, Co, Al, Fe and Ti were related to the geology of the local bedrock. The chemical composition of marine sediments was different at Hestøya and Nørholmen, indicating different anthropogenic inputs in these areas. In general, concentrations of toxic elements were below the proposed guidelines for Norwegian marine sediment quality and can be characterised as background pollution. Overall, fish-farming activities had only a minor or negligible influence on marine sediments and are unlikely to cause any harm to local aquatic life in the studied area.

The impact of anti-sea lice pesticides, azamethiphos and deltamethrin, on European lobster (Homarus gammarus) larvae in the Norwegian marine environment

Anti-sea lice pesticides, used in the salmonid aquaculture industry, are a growing environmental concern due to their potential to adversely affect non-target crustaceans. Azamethiphos and deltamethrin are two bath treatment pesticides used on salmon farms in Norway, however, limited information is available on their impact on European lobster (Homarus gammarus) larvae in the Norwegian marine environment. Here, we firstly report the lethal (LC50) and effective (EC50) concentrations of azamethiphos and deltamethrin for stage I and stage II larvae, following 1-h exposures. Using a hydrodynamic model, we also modelled the dispersal of both compounds into the marine environment around selected Norwegian farms and mapped the potential impact zones (areas that experience LC50 and EC50 concentrations) around each farm. Our data shows that azamethiphos and deltamethrin are acutely toxic to both larval stages, with LC50 and EC50 values below the recommended treatment concentrations. We also show that the azamethiphos impact zones around farms were relatively small (mean area of 0.04–0.2 km2), however deltamethrin impact zones covered much larger areas (mean area of 21.1–39.0 km2). These findings suggest that deltamethrin poses a significant risk to European lobster in the Norwegian marine environment while the impact of azamethiphos may be less severe.

Integrated Pest Management adoption by grain farmers in Norway: A novel index method

Within the last decade, implementing eight key principles of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) has become mandatory for all professional users of pesticides in the European Union (EU) and European Economic Area (EEA). Meanwhile, evidence of the level of implementation is lacking. In this study, the adoption of IPM principles among Norwegian grain farmers was measured using a novel IPM index based on self-reported levels of performing IPM practices. Three IPM experts weighted the principles and practices included in the index. They found prevention and suppression to be the most important principle, followed by monitoring and decision-making, while pesticide selection and evaluation were deemed least important. A survey of 1250 farmers showed that the principles with the highest adoption rates were evaluation and anti-resistance strategies, while non-chemical methods and reduced pesticide use had the lowest adoption rates. The results support previous suggestions that more complex principles, requiring a larger set of practices, are less readily adopted than those that are less complex. Nevertheless, the index scores showed that most Norwegian grain farmers are extensively practicing IPM; 75% of the respondents obtained scores between 60 and 80 on a 100-point scale, with an average score of 68. In the Norwegian context, it is more relevant to discuss the varying use of IPM rather than how to increase adoption in general.

How deregulation can become overregulation: An empirical study into the growth of internal bureaucracy when governments take a step back

Over the past decades, government safety management regulation has been driven by deregulation, simplification and organization-level regimes of inspection. So-called functional rule-making requires organizations to implement safety management systems appropriate for their operations. The paradox that seems to have arisen is that overregulation is common in many organizations. Research has found over-proceduralization, safety clutter, bureaucratic overload, and procedures not at the service of safety. To explore the paradoxical relationship between governmental deregulatory measures and organizational overregulation, we analyze empirical data from Norwegian fish farming and coastal transport. The data confirms that practitioners experience a rapidly grown abundance of internal rules and protocols, ill-fitting procedures, and pervasive, exaggerated safety management. We trace three mechanisms that have driven internal overregulation: work auditability; managerial insecurity and liability; and audit practices. These mechanisms show how functional regulation can have unintended consequences when it meets other accountability expectations. Expectations of market doctrine, bureaucratic entrepreneurism and control can lead a company transforming simple governmental regulations into vastly overcomplicated safety management systems. We conclude our study with prescriptions of how this aspect of safety could be done differently.

Environmental policy and innovation in Norwegian fish farming: Resolving the sea lice problem?

In Norway, the world's largest salmon-producing country, reducing sea-lice levels in fish farms has been an overarching goal of government policy since 2013. However, industry innovation has not yet succeeded in significantly reducing the sea lice problem.We identify two main types of radical environmental innovation that could potentially resolve the sea-lice problem: in-shore closed-cage production technology, and a genetically lice-resistant salmon. Furthermore, we provide an analytical framework that shows how radical environmental innovations with a “public good” character are least likely to receive private R&D funds. This leads us to conclude that neither in-shore closed cage technology nor targeted breeding towards lice-resistance will succeed in the market unless backed by targeted government intervention.Closer examination shows that these two types of innovation have been less prioritized, if at all, in recent policy interventions. First, the government has geared most of financial support towards relieving the risk of investment in offshore innovation projects, although inshore projects might be better suited for accommodating public and environmental needs. Second, this study underscores the need and potential for stimulating sustainable innovation through the genetic route—a point overlooked in Norway's current policy mix.

Exploring Work‐Related Characteristics as Predictors of Norwegian Sheep Farmers’ Affective Job Satisfaction

AbstractFarmers’ satisfaction with their farm job can have far‐reaching implications, as farmer and livestock wellbeing is likely to be intertwined. The aim of this study was to explore how job satisfaction of Norwegian sheep farmers is associated with other work‐related traits, such as work motivation, perceived physical work environment, the performance of management routines, and the proportion of their income derived from farming. Overall, respondents to the questionnaire (n = 1206) reported high levels of job satisfaction, and they were more intrinsically than extrinsically motivated. Regression analyses revealed that the strongest predictor of job satisfaction was intrinsic work motivation. Routinisation of management practices was also positively associated with job satisfaction, whereas extrinsic motivation and negative physical work environment were negatively associated. In conclusion, job satisfaction of Norwegian sheep farmers is mainly predicted by their intrinsic work motivation. Knowledge of this kind can be of use in supporting farmers, and through that enabling them to be proficient stockpeople.

Occupational health, safety and work environments in Norwegian fish farming - employee perspective

BackgroundAquaculture workers are exposed to several workplace hazards. Norwegian fish farming has a high occupational injury rate. This article provides new knowledge about workers' perceptions of their health and work environment. MethodsThe study is based on data collected in a telephone survey with 447 participants and 35 qualitative interviews. The survey respondents were mainly personnel working at fish farms and on service vessels. The interviewees included personnel at fish farms as well as managers and staff. Data were analysed according to a model that included working conditions and exposures, health complaints and concerns, sickness absence, subjective health status and job satisfaction. ResultsThe survey data show that physical and ergonomic exposures are the most common, and several workers report psychosocial exposures such as stress and lack of control in their workday. The most frequently reported health complaints were musculoskeletal (neck/shoulder/arm pain, back pain, hand/wrist pain, knee/hip pain). More than half of the respondents have concerns that their work environment may affect their health negatively. Work-related sickness absences related to strain and acute injuries are reported by 11.6% of respondents. Eighty-five per cent consider their health as good or very good, and 97% are satisfied at work always or most of the time. Interview data identify several work tasks that were perceived as particularly straining but also confirm the high level of job satisfaction in the industry. DiscussionHazards in the work environment need to be removed or mitigated to prevent unfavourable health exposures. Conflicting objectives in the production process may lead to work pressure for workers. Organisational factors that could improve individual work conditions are avoidance of long working hours and ensuring adequate rest between shifts. Workplace risk levels may be influenced by the design of fish farms and equipment, and hence occupational health and end user needs should be properly considered in technology development. ConclusionThe prevalence of musculoskeletal diseases stands out as a challenge for workers' occupational health. Measures should be implemented at the individual, organisational and regulatory levels and included in technology design.

Estimation of additive frontier functions with shape constraints

ABSTRACTProduction frontier is an important concept in modern economics and has been widely used to measure production efficiency. Existing nonparametric frontier models often only allow one or low-dimensional input variables due to ‘curse-of-dimensionality’. In this paper we propose a flexible additive frontier model which quantifies the effects of multiple input variables on the maximum output. In addition, we consider the estimation of the nonparametric frontier functions with shape restrictions. Economic theory often imposes shape constraints on production frontier, such as, monotonicity and concavity. A two-step constrained polynomial spline method is proposed to give smooth estimates that automatically satisfy such shape constraints. The proposed method is not only easy to compute, but also more robust to outliers. In theory, we established uniform consistency of the proposed method. We illustrate the proposed method by both simulation studies and an application to the Norwegian farm data. The numerical studies suggest that the proposed method has superior performance by incorporating shape constraints.

Prediction of size-dependent risk of salmon smolt (Salmo salar) escape through fish farm nets

The escape of small smolt through farm cage netting is a major challenge faced by the Norwegian salmon farming industry. Escape can occur when the smolt placed in the cages are smaller than the size estimated by the farmers. Furthermore, one may assume wrong mesh-properties as the cage netting change shape and/or state from stiff (mesh bars with tension) to slack (mesh bars without tension) due to sea currents or waves and become more suitable for penetration. The latter represents an increased risk for cages placed in more exposed sea areas, which is a growing trend in the industry due to increased demand for farming sites. The potential influence of mesh shape and state on the risk of escape from salmon farm cages is predicted. The morphological characteristics of salmon smolt are assessed and used to determine the risk of potential escape through meshes of different sizes, shapes and states. The results showed that fish smaller than 47 g and 201 g have the potential to escape through 30 mm and 50 mm meshes, respectively. In general, the risk of smolt escape is highest when the meshes in the netting are slack. Semi-slack meshes with mesh openness of between 65 and 95 % also present a higher risk of smolt escape than square stiff meshes. The highest risk of escape was identified at approximately 80 % mesh openness. This study illustrates the importance of mesh states in fish farming cage nettings. In many cases the minimum smolt size needed to maintain an escape risk below 1 % was approximately twice as large for slack square meshes than for stiff square meshes of the same size.

Determining the risk of calcium oxide (CaO) particle exposure to marine organisms

Calcium oxide (CaO) is being considered as a possible treatment for both the control of echinoderm populations and the treatment against sea lice infestation in Norwegian salmon farms. CaO particles produce an exothermal reaction when in contact with water, which can cause epidermal burns and lesions to certain target organisms leading to death. The aim of the present study was to determine the effects of fine (<0.8 mm) and coarse (<2.5 mm) CaO particles to a range of marine species from different taxonomic groups: two echinoderms (Asterias ruben and Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis); two crustaceans (Carcinus maenas and Tisbe battagliai); two molluscs (Mytilus edulis and Hinia reticulata); a polychaete (Nereis pelagica); a fish (Cyclopterus sp.); and seaweed germlings (Fucus vesiculosus). Overall, the fine CaO particles were more toxic to the selected marine species than the coarse particles. Coarse CaO particle effects were only observed in four of the nine species tested (A. rubens, S. droebachiensis, N. pelagica, T. battagliai) with similar LC50 values between 207 and 268 g/m2. For the fine CaO particles, the lowest LC50 was for the epibenthic copepod (T. battagliai) at 3.14 g/m2, followed by the sea urchin (20.1 g/m2), starfish (22.2 g/m2), ragworm (29.6 g/m2), and netted dog whelk (41.9 g/m2). Lump sucker fish exhibited significant mortalities only at the highest fine CaO concentration tested (320 g/m2) and recorded an LC50 of 226 g/m2. The toxicity data were used to generate species sensitivity distributions (SSDs) for both fine and coarse CaO particles. The hazard concentrations for 5% of the species (HC5) calculated from the SSDs, based on NOEC values, for the coarse and fine particles were 35.5 and 1.5 g/m2 respectively. Using a recommended assessment factor of 5, the Predicted No Effect Concentration (PNEC) was calculated as 7.1 and 0.3 g/m2 for coarse and fine CaO particles respectively.

Economic performance among Norwegian crop farms accounting for farm management and socio-economic factors

The objective of this paper is to examine the economic performance of crop-producing farms accounting for unobserved heterogeneity, environmental variables, and regions. The empirical analysis was based on a translog cost function and unbalanced farm-level panel data for 1991-2013 from the 455 crop-producing farms with 3,885 observations (1,004 observations from the central region and 2,881 observations from the eastern region). We found that the mean minimum costs were about 93% and 92% of the actual costs for crop farms in the central and eastern regions, respectively. The marginal effects of crop rotation, land tenure, off-farm activity, direct government support, and experience were positively associated with crop farm economic performance. The marginal contribution of these variables on economic performance increased in the years 2000-2013 compared with the years 1991-1999 in both regions.