Northwestern Syria Research Articles

Faunal Remains from Tell Aray 2, Northwestern Syria.

Présentation de l'analyse d'une partie des restes osseux animaux datés du début du 6e millénaire avant J.C., trouvés en 1990 dans le sondage A (T.P.-A) de Tell Aray 2 (Syrie du Nord). Plus de 80 % de la faune analysée provient de bœufs, porcs, moutons et chèvres domestiques. Des bœufs, chèvres, porcs sauvages, des gazelles, des cerfs et des daims ont aussi été identifiés. Un os ď oiseau et quelques coquillages ont été notés, mais aucune arête de poisson n'a été mise au jour. Le type et ï âge ď abattage suggèrent que bœufs, porcs, moutons, et chèvres étaient exploités prioritairement pour la viande. Les tailles des divers animaux de Tell Aray ont été évaluées à l' aide des indices standard de taille. Tant la taille des animaux que le type d'abattage tendent à prouver que, dès l'Amuq A, les bœufs sont domestiques. Entre l'Amuq A et l'Amuq B, la proportion d'animaux sauvages diminue légèrement. Moutons et chèvres sont plus abondants dans la seconde phase; en revanche, le bœuf diminue.

The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337.

Preface Abbreviations 1. Prologue: In Search of the Orient I. Empire 2. The Bridgehead and the Dependent Kingdoms, 31 BC-AD 74 2.1. From the Battle of Actium to the Death of Herod the Great 2.2. From the Death of Herod the Great to the End of Tiberius' Reign 2.3. From the Reign of Gaius to the Outbreak of the Jewish War 2.4. The Jewish War and Its Aftermath 3. Imperialism and Expansion, AD 74-195 3.1. Vespasian: A New Near Eastern Empire 3.2. Trajan : Expansion and Rearrangement in the Southern Near East 3.3. The Roman Presence, AD 114-161 3.4. Emperors and Pretenders in the Near East from Lucius Verus to Septimius Severus: The Conquest of Mesopotamia 4. Rome And Mesopotamia: From Parthia To Persia 4.1. The Severan Near East as a Military Structure 4.2. Emperors on Campaign, from Caracalla to Philip the Arab Shapur's Invasions and the Empire of Palmyra, AD 252-273 5. The Tetrarchy and Constantine 5.1. The Tetrarchy: Persian Wars and Fortified Lines 5.2. The Near East in the Tetrarchic Empire, AD 284-312 5.3. Licinius and Constantine, AD 313-337: Retrospect from a Christianised Empire II. Regions and Communities 6. Communal and Cultural Identities 7. The Tetrapolis and Northern Syria 7.1. The Geographical Context 7.2. Local Cult-Centres: Hierapolis and Doliche 7.3. Villages and Rural Temples 7.4. The Major Cities: Apamea 8. The Phoenician Coast and Its Hinterland 8.1. History and Geography 8.2. Phoenicia: The Southern Region 8.3. The Northern Coastline and Its Hinterland 8.4. The Major Cities: Byblos and Berytus 8.5. Sidon and Tyre 9. Eastern Syria Phoenice: Mountain, Oasis and Steppe 9.1. Geographical Connections 9.2. Emesa and Elagabal 9.3. Damascus and Its Region Palmyra 10. From Judaea to Syria Palaestina 10.1. History, Religion and Geography 10.2. Judaea before the First Revolt 10.3. From the First Jewish Revolt to the Second 10.4. Syria Palaestina 11. Arabia 11.1. Regions and Cultures 11.2. The Kingdom of Nabataea 11.3. The Decapolis in the First Century 11.4. The New Province of Arabia 11.5. The Nomadic Presence 12. The Euphrates and Mesopotamia 12.1. Geography, Culture and Language 12.2. Dura-Europos in the Parthian Period 12.3. The Middle Euphrates and the Coming of Rome 12.4. Roman Dura-Europos 12.5. Edessa as a Kingdom and Roman Colony until the Middle of the Third Century 12.6. Social and Religious Currents in the Fourth Century 13. Epilogue: East and West 13.1. East? 13.2. West? Appendix A. The Inscriptions of the Tetrarchic Land-Surveyors Appendix B. Documents from the Bar Kochba War Appendix C. Materials for the History of Roman Edessa and Osrhoene, AD 163-337 Maps I. The Near East: Areas Covered by Maps II-XII II. The Roman Near East: Main Sites and Geographical Features III. Northwestern Syria and Mount Amanus IV. The Phoenician Coast and Western Syria Phoenice V. The Central Syrian Steppe, Pabnyra and the Euphrates VI. Judaea/Syria Palaestina, Western Arabia VII. Southeastern Syria Phoenice, Northern Arabia VIII. Petra and South-Central Arabia IX. Arabia, with Sinai, the Red Sea and the Hedjaz X. Eastern Syria, the Euphrates and Western Mesopotamia XI. Central Mesopotamia and Mons Masius XII. The Eastern Syrian Steppe and the Middle Euphrates General Index Index of Literary Sources Index of Documents

TWO SEALS BY THE SAME HAND

As my contribution to this volume in honor of Professor Edith Porada, I offer com ments on two seals (Figs. 1 and 2). Based on common iconographic elements and specific details of execution, it will be shown that these two Old Syrian seals were carved by the same craftsman. They belong to the realm of Old Syrian popular-style seals carved in the early Middle Bronze Age (c. twentieth-mid-eighteenth century B.C.) in the area of southeastern Turkey and northwestern Syria.1 The term 'Old Syrian was first applied by Porada in 1966 in her discussion of three cylinder seals found at Byblos in the cache of objects known as the Montet jar.2 In her later, 1985, survey of the glyptic art of Syria, Porada divided Old Syrian into two groups: Old Syrian I and II.3 Old Syr ian I includes cylinder seals carved in a lin ear manner, frequently representing a seated figure holding a drinking tube. Old Syrian II refers to Syrian seals best known from ancient impressions on tablets of Kiiltepe Level II (c. 1920-1840 B.C.), ori ginally called Syrian Colony style by Nimet Ozgii?,4 and actual seals of similar style. My own study concentrates on seals that can be classified as Old Syrian I, which I refer to as popular.5 Iconography and style of carving differentiate Old Syrian I from II, as can the type of stone. Old Syr ian I seals are usually made of chlorite and rarely of hematite, the more valuable stone customarily used for Old Syrian II seals with more elaborate designs.6 The two seals under discussion are out standing examples of popular styles. The seal of normal cylindrical shape (Fig. 1) was excavated by Harald Hauptmann in 1987 at Lidar Hoyiik in southeastern Tur key during the Euphrates salvage projects. The cylinder seal, 33.8 mm. high, was found in a building dated by the excavators to Middle Bronze II.7 The second seal is in the collection of Mr. And Mrs. Jonathan P. Rosen in New

The Neanderthal Remains from Dederiyeh Cave, Syria: Interim Report.

Dederiyeh No. 2, a large cave site in northwestern Syria, was chosen for excavation after an extensive reconnaissance survey in the Afrin region in 1987 under the Syrian-Japan joint expedition. The cave is about 60km NW of Aleppo, the second largest city of Syria. The preliminary excavations of 1989 and 1990 uncovered a number of fragmentary human remains as well as rich lithic and faunal assemblages. The lithic industries of the cave are composed of two distinct assemblages. One was assigned to the Natufian class, and was found in the test excavation area. The other was assigned to the Levantine Middle Paleolithic, because of its large proportion of Levallois type cores and flakes. It was found in the main excavation area. The left humerus of a young infant was found in situ in the Levantine Middle Paleolithic context. Several adult bones and teeth, although found in secondary position in the main excavation area, appeared on anatomical grounds to be Neanderthals.

Microchemical investigation of early iron metallurgy slags

A group of slags, dating back to Iron Age II (Aramean period, 800-720 B.C.), that appeared to be iron-smelting by-products, have been found at Tell Afis (North-Western Syria). The microchemistry of these materials has been studied by means of small-area X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray induced Auger electron spectroscopy (XAES), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electron-probe microanalysis (EPMA) and optical microscopy (OM). The results indicate that the slags can be associated with an iron-smelting process and show the presence of large amounts of Fe(II) and Fe(III) oxides and hydroxides mixed with different glassy and crystalline silicon compounds. The latter consist essentially of quartz and various silicates, such as wollastonite, melilite, Mg[SiO4] or Mg[SiO6] compounds and other complex aluminosilicates. This chemical information is used to elucidate some aspects of the early ironmaking process.

Small‐area XPS and XAES study of early iron metallurgy slags

AbstractA group of slags dating back to Iron Age II (Aramean Period, 800–720 BC), which appeared to be iron‐smelting by‐products, has been found at Tell Afis (Northwestern Syria). The chemistry of these materials has been studied by means of small‐area x‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy and x‐ray‐induced Auger electron spectroscopy. The results indicate that the slags can be associated with an iron smelting process and show the presence of large amounts of FeO1−x′, Fe3O4 and FeOOH mixed with different aluminium and silicon compounds. As evidenced by the Wagner two‐dimensional chemical‐state plots of silicon and aluminium, these latter consist essentially of quartz and various silicates, such as wollastonite, Mg[SiO4] or Mg[SiO6] compounds, melilite and other complex aluminosilicates. Chemical information agrees with the predictions of the model of early iron‐making furnaces and is used to elucidate some aspects of the early iron‐making process.

Palynology of a resin from an Egyptian coffin of the second century B.C.

A palynological analysis was carried out on a small amount of resin from the inside of an anthropoid Egyptian stone coffin from the second century B.C.Pinus halepensis Miller is the best represented resiniferous plant (5.3%) in the pollen spectrum and the botanical origin of the resin can be ascribed to it. The only group of pollen which is relatively abundant in the spectrum is Poaceae (29.6%). This high percentage suggests that grasses were in bloom during the period the resin was collected (late spring or summer). Pollen of Quercus ilex, Olea europaea, Ostrya carpinifolia, Castanea sativa were also found. Pollen grains of Hordeum and Avena/Triticum types together with those of Plantago, Urtica, Chenopodiaceae, Rumex and Artemisia represent anthropogenic indicators.A phytogeographical interpretation of the found pollen assemblage suggests the eastern part of the Mediterranean as the most probable area where the resin was collected. The presence of Cedrus libani pollen suggests an origin from south-eastern Turkey, north-western Syria or northern Lebanon. The flora of this area is in accordance with the pollen assemblage found in the studied resin.

Application of Surface and Bulk Analytical Techniques for the Study of Iron Metallurgy Slags at Tell Afis (N-W Syria)

ABSTRACTBy a combined use of small area X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (SA-XPS),X-ray induced Auger electron spectroscopy (XAES), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and electron probe for microanalysis (EPMA), the microchemistry of a group of slags from Tell Afis (North-Western Syria), dating back to Iron Age II (750 B.C.), have investigated. The results show and localize the presence of different iron oxides and hydroxides as well of various glassy and crystalline silicates, whose chemical structure and morphology have determined.

Crustal shortening in the Palmyride Fold Belt, Syria, and implications for movement along the Dead Sea Fault System

The Palmyride fold belt is a northeast‐trending, 400 by 100 km transpressive belt in central Syria embedded in the northern Arabian platform, bounded to the north by the Aleppo plateau and to the south by the Rutbah uplift. Palinspastically restored cross sections from three transects across the Palmyride fold belt demonstrate a minimum NW‐SE shortening of about 20% or 20 km across the southwestern segment of the belt, diminishing to 1–2 km in the northeast, close to the Euphrates graben system. The cross sections are based on the 1∶200,000 scale geologic map of Syria and previously unavailable seismic reflection and well data, all provided by the Syrian Petroleum Company. These results differ significantly from those predicted by kinematic models of Middle East plate motions. In western Syria and eastern Lebanon the Palmyrides obliquely intersect (at about 45°) the roughly north‐trending Dead Sea transform fault system. The Dead Sea fault system shows well‐documented evidence of 105 km of left‐lateral displacement since mid‐Tertiary time south of its intersection with the Palmyrides, yet only about 25 km of motion has been documented north of that juncture in Lebanon and western Syria. Thus, kinematic models of Middle East plate motions predict 80 km of shortening in Syria, most of which should be accommodated in the Palmyride fold belt. Several possibilities exist to explain the discrepancy between the 80 km of predicted shortening and the only 20 km of shortening measured from restored cross sections. Restored cross sections offer only minimum shortening estimates, so the calculated 20 km may underestimate shortening. Second, evidence of strike‐slip displacement recognized in minimum shortening estimates, so the calculated 20 km may underestimate shortening. Second, evidence of strike‐slip displacement recognized in the field and reported in the literature, and indicated by new focal mechanism solutions of two recent earthquakes in the Palmyrides, indicates that some of the still “missing” displacement may be distributed throughout central and northern Syria as strike‐slip motion oblique to the relative northward convergence of the Arabian plate on the Eurasian plate. Alternatively, previous estimates of slip along the northern segment of the Dead Sea transform fault system may be only minimum estimates. A final possibility is that the Dead Sea transform fault in northwestern Syria has been active for only the past 5–6 m.y. or so, implying that it was either nonexistent or moved only slightly before the Pliocene. This would suggest that there is a total of only 45 km of N‐S convergence to be found in central and northern Syria, about 25 km on the Dead Sea fault system and about 20 km in the Palmyrides. This last possibility requires that the northern and southern segments of the Dead Sea fault system developed independently during most of the past 15–20 m.y. In light of the documented but unquantified strike‐slip motion in the Palmyrides, it seems reasonable that strike‐slip motion does accommodate a significant portion of the convergence between the Arabian and Eurasian plates. It is likely, however, that one or more of the other proposed mechanisms also accounts for a component of the expected 80 km of shortening.

Occurrence and impact ofPhytomyza orobanchia [Diptera: Agromyzidae] onOrobanche crenata [Orobanchaceae] in Syria

A survey was carried out in 1988 to determine the occurrence and distribution of the flyPhytomyza orobanchia Kaltenbach [Diptera: Agromyzidae] on broomrape (Orobanche crenata Forskal) at 21 locations in northwestern Syria. Fruit capsules of broomrape were examined in faba bean (Vicia faba L.) fields. The fly was present at 95% of the locations sampled. Of 630 broomrape plants examined over all locations, 55.5% were infested. Of the 1,890 capsules examined, 32.5% were attacked. Fly populations were highest near the coast where 79% of the broomrapes were damaged. The total seed output of broomrape plants was reduced by 29.4% in the surveyed area due to a mean seed destruction of 91.1% per infested broomrape capsule.

Large historical earthquakes and seismic risk in Northwest Syria

Arabic documents and manuscripts containing detailed descriptions of material damage and ground deformation due to earthquakes in northwestern Syria have been used to establish a catalogue of local seismicity and assign epicentral intensities to the earthquakes. Large earthquakes affecting the northern Syrian fault system apparently have a recurrence interval of about 340±60 yr. Here we use this figure and a relationship between recurrence interval and seismic moment, recently proposed by Molnar, to estimate the maximum seismic moment (0.5 × 1027 ≤ M0Max ≤ 3.7 × 1027) and the magnitude (7.1 ≤ Mw ≤ 7.7) of the largest earthquakes in northwestern Syria. Such an earthquake is not expected for at least one century but an earthquake with magnitude 6 ≤ Mw ≤ 7 might occur in the near future.

Ophiolites du nord-ouest syrien et evolution de la croute oceanique tethysienne au cours du mesozoique

The Baër-Bassit area of northwestern Syria is composed of an ophiolite suite and a Triassic to Lower Cretaceous volcano-sedimentary formation. This area is believed to represent the front of sheets overthrust in the Maestrichtian on the Arabian Platform. The roots of the sheets are found to the north, in Turkey. The Baër-Bassit area could thus correspond to the southern margin of the northern part of the obducted Tethyan oceanic crust. Formation of the ocean started in the Late Triassic or at the beginning of the Jurassic. The subduction of Tethyan crust under the northern oceanic margin would have led to a change in the magmatic processes which would have produced the upper levels of hypertholeiitic pillow lavas on the southern rim of the northern district. In fact, those lavas are present all around the Arabian Platform, in the most ‘meridional’ ophiolitic complexes: Cyprus, Baër-Bassit and Oman. The change in magmatism would by definition occur in a relatively narrow zone; this would explain the differences observed when comparing the lavas and the sheeted intrusive complex on both the ‘meridional’ ophiolites and the more ‘internal’ Turkish massifs. Although belonging to the same oceanic crust, the differences in the ophiolitic assemblages would correspond to a different stage of its formation; the Turkish one would probably be a portion of oceanic crust formed at an earlier stage. Moreover, the volcano-sedimentary series associated with the ophiolites of Cyprus and Baër-Bassit would have been formed at the southern margin of the Tethyan region. A part of the volcano-sedimentary sequence has been subducted and metamorphosed. Amphibolites formed in this way would have been extracted from the subduction zone during the last movements when oceanic crust overthrust the Arabian—African Platform. The unmetamorphosed volcano-sedimentary series would have been folded and thrust towards the obducted oceanic crust during the same period. However, whereas the volcano-sedimentary formation of Syria is tectonically overthrust by the ophiolite, it is possible that the similar formation in Cyprus has been deposited from the south over the Troodos Massif.

A LATE QUATERNARY POLLEN DIAGRAM FROM NORTHWESTERN SYRIA

SUMMARY This paper deals with the palynological investigation of a 12 m long core from the Ghab valley, north-western Syria. The core covers the greater part of the last glacial period and the Postglacial. The pollen diagram reflects an alternation of periods in which steppe vegetations expanded and those in which forests increased. Tree growth was determined by humidity rather than by temperature. On the whole, the second part of the last glacial was drier than the first part. The period preceding the Late-glacial was especially unfavourable for tree growth.

A synopsis of the stratigraphy and geological history of Cyprus

Summary Cyprus lies in the eastern Mediterranean region and its northern (Kyrenia) mountain range, trending approximately west-east and thrust to the south, forms part of the southernmost loop of the Tauric arc of Suess, which extends towards the north-east through Hatay (Alexandretta) and north-western Syria. The island is divisible into the following belts, trending approximately west-east and differentiated by their geomorphology and stratigraphy. (1) A narrow, northern, coastal belt of Upper Senonian, Eocene, Miocene and Pliocene marine sediments dipping unconformably off the Kyrenia range to the south. (2) The Kyrenia mountain-range with upthrust slices of Triassic red beds and radiolarites, slightly metamorphosed Jurassic limestones, green igneous rocks, and tectonically displaced, unconformable younger sediments. (3) The Mesaoria plain, with sharply folded, marine foredeep deposits ranging at least from Upper Cretaceous to Pliocene, and unconformably overlapping the south flank of the Kyrenia range. (4) The central, basic igneous massif of the Troodos mountains, with plutonic, hyperbyssal and eruptive rocks, giving evidence of recurrent igneous activity in Mesozoic and (?)Tertiary times. Eocene to Pliocene marine sediments of the Mesaoria basin overlap unconformably on the north flank of Troodos. (5) The southern foothill belt of buckled Upper Senonian, Eocene, Miocene and Pliocene marine beds, flanking Troodos unconformably to the south and exposing intensely faulted inliers of Triassic red beds, limestones, contorted radiolarites, and contemporaneous volcanic rocks. Post-Triassic basic igneous extrusions penetrate these inliers. Thus the exposed geology of Cyprus shows marine Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments resting unconformably on a Mesozoic (pre-Cretaceous) foundation. Kober (1915) includes the island in the border zone of the Tauric nappes, but the authors regard Cyprus, south of the Kyrenia range, as a fragment of the Syrian foreland now separated by submerged graben from its continuation on the Syrian mainland, which it resembles in its stratigraphy. The stratigraphy has been considerably revised in detail. Marine sedimentary cycles, separated by unconformities, were as follows : Triassic-Jurassic, with some doubt as to the relationship between formations of the two periods; Upper Senonian-Oligocene, with a local regression between Maestrichtian and Lutetian; Miocene, with a transgressive maximum in Vindobonian times; Pliocene, with an intermediate regression. The main thrusting of the Kyrenia range corresponds with the Savian and Attic movements; general emergence followed the Pliocene. Volcanic activity occurred in the Triassic, Jurassic-Middle Cretaceous interval, Senonian, and Vindobonian (slight).