North Hungarian Mountains Research Articles

Regional insights into Upper Palaeolithic territorial strategies and the factors of habitat choice in the territory of the Hungarian Central Mountains

The investigation into regional occurrence patterns contributes to a deeper understanding of Palaeolithic habitat exploitation. To explore this, geological, spatial, and environmental factors influencing the distribution of Upper Palaeolithic archaeological sites are studied in the Hungarian Central Mountains, focusing on Szeletian, Aurignacian, Gravettian, and Epigravettian cultures. The study employs a combination of spatial, statistical, classification analyses, and decision tests, including Kernel Density Estimation, Voronoi tessellation, the Dunn-Bonferroni test, Principal Component and Coordinate Analyses, Linear Discriminant Analysis, Random Forest Analysis, to examine the reasons behind the spatial distributions of archaeological sites by cultures. It was found that Szeletians inhabited higher elevation regions in the North Hungarian Mountains than Aurignacians. Voronoi tessellation shows that Gravettian and Epigravettian cultures exhibit a broader spread, with concentrations around the Danube Bend and southern foothills of the Mátra Mountains. Raw material distributions revealed that Szeletian sites are the closest to siliceous raw materials, while Aurignacian sites are the farthest. Principal component analysis reveals moderate separation in habitat selection and indicates that Aurignacians inhabited relatively warmer, less precipitous regions than Szeletians. Linear Discriminant Analysis indicates somewhat overlapping paleoenvironmental conditions in the case of Szeletian and Aurignacian sites; however, it shows the complete separation between Aurignacian and Gravettian sites. Random Forest Analysis results indicate that key separator factors between Szeletian and Aurignacian sites included topographical roughness, while daily energy expenditure and the mean temperature of the coldest quarter played the most crucial roles in separating Aurignacian and Gravettian, as well as Gravettian and Epigravettian sites.

Distribution, population size and conservational status of the regionally endangered Large Banded Grasshopper (Arcyptera fusca) in Hungary (Orthoptera: Acrididae)

Summary The abandonment of grasslands is a major threat to the local biodiversity of these habitats. Secondary succession may have a negative effect on species richness, especially in mountain meadows. The Large Banded Grasshopper, Arcyptera fusca (Pallas, 1773) is a typical example throughout Europe. According to former publications and our field survey of 2021, the extant number of populations of this species in Hungary has decreased from 31 to eight in the last decades. Based on the population size estimation carried out in 2021, some of the recent populations of A. fusca in Hungary count only dozens of adult specimens, while the largest ones consist of several hundreds. Their habitats cover ca. 40 hectares in all, in the North Hungarian Mountains. According to the IUCN guidelines, A. fusca should be considered endangered (EN) in Hungary. Our results show that active conservational measures with long term monitoring are important, and necessary to preserve this species together with its biodiversity-rich mountainous habitats in Hungary.

Floristic records from Northern Hungary IV. Helleborus dumetorum from the Cserhát Hills and other occurrences

In this publication, the author provides occurrences of geobotanical importance from the North Hungarian Mountains collected in the spring of 2023. First occurrence for the following species was recorded: Helleborus dumetorum from the Cserhát Hills, Lunaria annua from the Mátra Mts. and Dryopteris affinis from the Bükk Mts. Ranunculus aquatilis was found again in the Bükk Mts., where it had been collected more than 100 years ago, and Rubus saxatilis was found for the fourth time in the Zemplén Mts.

The feed preference of roe deer in different habitats

The roe deer, widely distributed across Europe and our homeland, has a significant economic and hunting value. Our research aims to understand the diet and food choice of deer in the lowland (Great Hungarian Plain, Hódmezővásárhely) and mid-mountain (North Hungarian Mountains, Salgótarján) habitats. To determine their diet, we conducted a sample collection of roe deer and analysed their droppings using epidermal analysis. Descriptive statistics were employed to determine the proportions of ingested plants, revealing Petroselium spp. (6.5-8.3%) and Beta spp. leaves (4.3-9.1%) as the most commonly consumed plants in Hódmezővásárhely. In Salgótarján, the roe deer population consumed significant amounts of Robinia pseudoacacia (47.8%). These findings have implications for wildlife management and conservation, particularly in areas where roe deer are the predominant big game species, such as the Great Hungarian Plain, providing ample opportunities for hunting and economic benefits.

Genomic analysis reveals complex population structure within the smooth newt, Lissotriton vulgaris, in Central Europe.

Species with wide-range distributions usually display high genetic variation. This variation can be partly explained by historical lineages that were temporally isolated from each other and are back into secondary reproductive contact, and partly by local adaptations. The smooth newt (Lissotriton vulgaris) is one of the most widely distributed amphibians species across Eurasia and forms a species complex with a partially overlapping distribution and morphology. In the present study, we explored the population genomic structure of smooth newt lineages in the Carpathian Basin (CB) relying on single-nucleotide polymorphisms. Our dataset included new and previously published data to study the secondary contact zone between lineages in the CB and also tested for the barrier effect of rivers to gene flow between these lineages. We confirmed the presence of the South L. v. vulgaris Lineage distributed in Transdanubia and we provided new distribution records of L. v. ampelensis inhabiting the eastern territories of the CB. High genetic diversity of smooth newts was observed, especially in the North Hungarian Mountains and at the interfluves of the main rivers in the South with four distinct lineages of L. v. vulgaris and one lineage of L. v. ampelensis showing a low level of admixture with the spatially closest L. v. vulgaris lineage. Moreover, admixture detected at the interfluve of the main rivers (i.e. Danube and Tisza) suggested a secondary contact zone in the area. Finally, we found that the river Danube has a very weak effect on population divergence, while the river Tisza is a geographical barrier limiting gene flow between smooth newt lineages. As the range boundaries of L. v. vulgaris and L. v. ampelensis in the CB coincide with the river Tisza, our study underpins the influence of rivers in lineage diversification.

Cereals from the Late Bronze Age Fortified Settlement of Tállya-Óvár

This paper aims to present new archaeobotanical data from the Late Bronze Age settlement of Tállya-Óvár in the North Hungarian Mountains. Upon investigating the area around a bronze hoard found earlier, the floor of a building was unearthed, and 16 archaeobotanical samples were taken. The interpretation of the botanical finds was difficult due to a low to medium density of remains and the judgement sampling method. This paper focuses mainly on cereal remains, attempting to interpret them by comparing them with the record of contemporary sites in Hungary and placing them in a broader European context. The samples from Tállya-Óvár were dominated by spelt, barley, and millet. In general, the archaeobotanical assemblage fits the hypotheses concerning Late Bronze Age agriculture. These results are important because no archaeobotanical data have yet been published from high-altitude fortified settlements in the North Hungarian Mountains.

The relationship between ignimbrite lithofacies and topography in a foothill setting formed on Miocene pyroclastics – a case study from the Bükkalja, Northern Hungary

Units with extremely variable erodibility are typical in the succession of pyroclastic-dominated volcanic fields. Welded ignimbrites are usually resistant to erosion, thus, they often appear as positive landforms, i.e., mesas or tilted plateaus after millions of years of denudation. The Bükkalja Volcanic Area being part of the most extended foothill area of the North Hungarian Mountains, is composed predominantly of Miocene ignimbrites, where the frequency distributions of elevation a.s.l., slope, aspect, as well as topographic openness, were investigated using a 30 m resolution SRTM-based digital surface model at four sample areas located at different relative distances from the assumed source localities of the ignimbrites, showing both non-welded and welded facies. The degree of dissection was also examined along swath profiles. The topography of the sample area closest to the source localities is dominated by slabs of moderately dissected welded ignimbrites, gently dipping towards SE. Farther away from the source the topography is dominated by erosional valleys and ridges, resulting in a narrower typical elevation range, a higher proportion of pixels with greater than 5° slope, higher frequencies of NE and SW exposures, and more significant incision resulted in more frequent pixels with positive topographic openness less than 1.5 radians here. Higher thicknesses and emplacement temperatures of ignimbrites, often showing welded facies are more common closer to the source vent. Thus, the erosional pattern around calderas can be used to draw conclusions on the spatial extent of the most intense ignimbrite accumulation, i.e., the location of eruption centres even in highly eroded ignimbrite fields.

The origin and population genetics of wolves in the north Hungarian mountains

The grey wolf (Canis lupus) is one of the most challenging species to conserve in our modern and crowded world. Due to various factors, most European wolf populations are currently growing. In Hungary, numbers have increased since the 2000s. Although spontaneous recolonisation from Slovakia is considered to be the most likely mechanism by the majority of experts, some stakeholders claim that hand-reared individuals have been released. To determine the origin of wolves in northern Hungary, we analysed samples of free-ranging wolves collected in Slovakia and Hungary as well as samples from wolves in private enclosures in the region. We also included reference samples from domestic dogs. All samples were genotyped at 14 canine autosomal tetranucleotide microsatellite loci (STR) and analysed using multivariate, Bayesian methods. Hungarian wolf samples were also analysed using kinship methods. In the free-ranging wolf samples, all loci were polymorphic with 3–12 alleles. The overall observed (Ho) and unbiased expected (uHE) heterozygosities were 0.60–0.66 and 0.69–0.71, respectively. Parental and sibling relationships were also found among Hungarian individuals: three generations of a pack in the Bükk Mountains were identified. Samples from free-ranging wolves clustered separately from those of captive wolves and dogs. However, genetic similarities were found between Slovakian and Hungarian wolf samples. Our analyses indicate a Slovakian origin of the sampled Hungarian wolves, and we found no evidence that individuals originating in captivity have played any role in the recolonisation process. Kinship relationships and moderate genetic diversity suggest that there is ongoing gene flow across the Slovakian–Hungarian border.

The potential effects of climate change on the populations of Aedes punctor (Diptera: Culicidae) in Hungary

In Hungary, the boreal-alpine mosquito Aedes punctor has a disjunct distribution limited to the Hungarian mid-mountains. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential effect of global warming on the future (2041–2060 and 2061–2080) climatic suitability for the mosquito in Hungary. The results indicate the heterogeneous, but in general, the negative effect of climate change on the distribution area of Aedes punctor in this region. The models predict the total loss of mosquito habitat in the Transdanubian mountain ranges (Bakony-Balaton and Mecsek Mts.) for 2061–2080. In the North Hungarian Mountains (in the Mátra Mts.), climatic alterations may result in the habitat contraction, but not total disappearance of the climatically suitable areas for Aedes punctor at higher elevations of mountain ranges. It can be concluded that climate change can cause the altitudinal shift of the suitable habitats and the range-contraction of Hungarian middle mountains-inhabiting populations of the mosquito in Hungary in the second half of the twenty-first century assuming that the future climatic needs of the species would remain the same as at present.

Tállya-Óvár : New paths in the research of hillforts in the North Hungarian Mountains

Altogether 44 Late Bronze and Early Iron Age hillforts have been identified in the territory of Hungary thus far. The since-legendary topographic work by Gyula Nováki, in which he has discovered, surveyed, and described sites that were already known during the 19th century and new ones, represented a massive leap forward in their research. The systematic survey programme started in 2006 by a dedicated team of the Institute of Archaeological Sciences of the Eötvös Loránd University (ELU, Budapest) resulted in another major expansion of the available body of information. The research team used metal detectors to survey the hillfort settlements in the region (V. Szabó 2017). Though some archaeological investigation has been carried out on every fortified settlement in the region by today, comprehensive complex evaluation was only attempted in two cases (Szilvásvárad-Kelemenszéke, V. Szabó & Bíró 2018; V. Szabó 2019, 213–224 and Tállya-Óvár). The present study surveys the methodology and current results of the investigations on the hillfort at Tállya-Óvár.

Precipitation interpolation using digital terrain model and multivariate regression in hilly and low mountainous areas of Hungary

The relationship between precipitation and elevation is a well-known topic in the field of geography and meteorology. Radar-based precipitation data are often used in hydrologic models, however, they have several inaccuracies, and elevation can be one of the additional parameters that may help to improve them. Thus, our aim in this article is to find a quantitative relationship between precipitation and elevation in order to correct precipitation data input into hydrologic models. It is generally accepted that precipitation increases with elevation, however, the real situation is much more complicated, and besides elevation, the precipitation is dependent on several other topographic factors (e.g., slope, aspect) and many other climatic parameters, and it is not easy to establish statistically reliable correlations between precipitation and elevation. In this paper, we examine precipitation-elevation correlations by using multiple regression analysis based on monthly climatic data. Further on, we present a method, in which these regression equations are combined with kriging or inverse distance weighting (IDW) interpolation to calculate precipitation fields, which take into account topographic elevations based on digital terrain models. Thereafter, the results of the different interpolation methods are statistically compared. Our study areas are in the hilly or low mountainous regions of Hungary (Bakony, Mecsek, Börzsöny, Cserhát, Mátra and Bükk montains) with a total of 52 meteorological stations. Our analysis proved that there is a linear relationship between the monthly sum of precipitation and elevation. For the North Hungarian Mountains, the correlation coefficients were statistically significant for the whole study period with values between 0.3 and 0.5. Multivariate regression analysis pointed out that there are remarkable differences among seasons and even months. The best correlation coefficients are typical of late spring-early summer and October, while the weakest linear relationships are valid for the winter period and August. The vertical gradient of precipitation is between one and four millimetres per 100 metres for each month. The statistical comparison of the precipitation interpolation had the following results: for most months, co-kriging was the best method, and the combined method using topography-derived regression parameters lead to only slightly better results than the standard kriging or IDW.

Hawthorn (Crataegus, Rosaceae) data for the flora of the North Hungarian Mountains (NE Hungary)

This paper includes 4 hawthorn species (C. laevigata, C. lindmanii, C. ovalis, C. rosaeformis subsp. rosaeformis) and 8 hawthorn hybrid taxa (C. ×macrocarpa nothosubsp. baranecii, C. ×media, C. ×plagiosepala nothosubsp. dunensis, C. ×pseudoxyacantha, C. ×radnoti-gyarmatii, C. subsphaerica nothosubsp. jacquinii and nothosubsp. subsphaerica) from the North Hungarian Mountains, giving the exact location data and site conditions of the new discoveries. It points out that approximately 10% of the hawthorn individuals in the studied forests are microspecies or hybrids, and that hybrid taxa are often present more frequently than their parent species.

The effect of light, soil pH and stand heterogeneity on understory species composition of dry oak forests in the North Hungarian Mountains

Dry oak forests have one of the richest understory vegetation in Europe, but the environmental drivers of this community have been scarcely revealed. In this study, we assessed whether the amount of light, soil pH or stand heterogeneity affect primarily the species composition of this community. We investigaed 332 sampling plots in 40–165 year old managed and abandoned Quercus cerris and Q. petraea dominated forests in North Hungary. Presence-absence data of herbaceous species and seedlings of woody species were recorded in 28 subplots within each sampling plot. Stand structure, canopy openness and soil pH were also measured in each plot. The relationships between stand characteristics and the species assemblage were explored by redundancy analysis, while the individual responses of species and species groups were studied by generalized linear mixed models. Multivariate methods and individual species response analyses provided similar results, the amount of light and soil pH were equally important variables (both of them explained 2.8% of species variance), while stand heterogeneity had a bit lower, albeit still significant role in determining understory species composition (1.9% of species variance explained). Seedlings of woody species preferred shaded (half-shaded) conditions, while many herbaceous species were positively related to light. The effect of the three explanatory variables was hard to separate, since they influenced each other as well. Sessile oak seedlings and herbs typical of dry forests, forest edges, grasslands and acidic soil habitats preferred light rich habitats with homogeneous stand structure and low soil pH. Mesic forest herbs and seedlings of other woody species were related to relatively high soil pH, heterogeneous stand structure and closed canopy. These two understory types were clearly separated regarding composition. This study emphasizes the importance of heterogenous light conditions and mosaic, diverse forest structure (presence of homogeneous and heterogeneous forest patches) during forest management for the maintenance of understory biodiversity.

A Grimmia plagiopodia Hedw. természetvédelmi helyzete Magyarországon

A szerzők a Grimmia plagiopodia Hedw. védett és veszélyeztetett lombosmoha faj há­rom új, 2017-ben megtalált előfordulási adatát közlik Nagymaros és Kismaros községek határából, a Bör­zsöny hegységből. Az IUCN új kritériumainak felhasználásával elvégezték a faj veszélyeztetettségi stá­tuszának újbóli értékelését Magyarországon. Ennek alapján a G. plagiopodia továbbra is veszélyezte­tett státuszra jogosult hazánkban.

Bird-nest analysis: A rarely tested noninvasive survey method for monitoring mammals

Surveys of mammals can be difficult to carry out due to their elusive lifestyle and nocturnal behavior. In order to minimize the disturbance to target species, indirect or noninvasive methods are recommended. These techniques can enable the collection of samples without disturbing the animals. Active methods (e.g. hair traps) are based on artificial devices, and passive methods (e.g. scat collecting) entail the collection of samples directly from the environment. The aim of this study was to survey the mammal fauna of the Natura 2000 site of Sar-hegy in the North Hungarian Mountains based on noninvasive bird-nest analysis through the identification of hairs found in nests, based on macroscopic and microscopic features of the guard hairs. Eight out of the twelve (67%) collected nest and cavity lining materials contained good quality guard hairs. In total, 55 hair samples were found that could be analyzed, and 52 of these samples have been classified. Ten species and two twin-species were identified. The most common species was wild boar, and the most common taxa was the ruminant. There were three samples of protected species: the Eurasian beaver, the edible dormouse and the hazel dormouse-forest dormouse twin-species. The obtained findings suggest that this method can be used for monitoring the spread of species. The methodology proved to be a cheap way to collect reliable data on mammal fauna. More studies are needed to test this promising method, since gathering faunistical data can be important, especially for monitoring Natura 2000 sites. https://doi.org/10.2298/ABS170821053L Received: August 21, 2017; Revised: November 2, 2017; Accepted: November 30, 2017; Published online: December 20, 2017 How to cite this article: Lang DL, Biro Z, Heltai M, Patko L. Bird-nest analysis: A rarely tested noninvasive survey method for monitoring mammals. Arch Biol Sci. 2018;70(2):359-64.

Increased genetic structuring of isolatedSalamandra salamandrapopulations (Caudata: Salamandridae) at the margins of the Carpathian Mountains

The traditional southern Pleistocene refugia hypothesis in Europe has lately been challenged for several animal and plant species. The Carpathian Basin, especially at the marginal regions, is one of the recently recognized biodiversity hotspots in Europe. Marginal populations are prone to have lower genetic diversity and higher genetic differentiation than central populations. Here, we examined one mitochondrial DNA fragment (D-loop) and nine nuclear (microsatellite) loci to describe the genetic diversity and phylogeographical pattern of fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra) populations in the Carpathian Basin with focusing on the southern margins of the Western Carpathians, where isolated populations of this species are present. Analyses of microsatellites indicated reduced genetic diversity for most of the isolated populations. Based on the mitochondrial DNA, only two haplotypes were found, whereas the analyses with the nuclear markers revealed a more recent genetic split between Western (Alpine) and Eastern (Carpathian) populations, and separated the Apuseni Mountains population (part of the Western Carpathians). Using approximate Bayesian computation analyses, we identified the most probable colonization scenario for the isolated North Hungarian Carpathian Basin populations. The split between isolated salamander populations from the central populations in the Carpathian Mountains dates back to the beginning of the Late Pleistocene, while the split between most of the Hungarian populations can be associated with the Last Glacial Maximum. We found evidence for long-time isolation between the marginal Carpathian Basin and central populations. Our results also show that S. salamandra survived glacial periods in the temperate forests of north-east Pannonia (North Hungarian Mountains), confirming that the Carpathian Basin served as important northerly refugia during the Pleistocene climatic oscillations.

Reconstruction of early Holocene Thermal Maximum temperatures using present vertical distribution of conifers in the Pannon region (SE Central Europe)

Palaeoclimatic reconstruction is a main subject of palaeoecology, clarifying fossil palaeoenvironmental patterns. Our study provides a macroecological approach to reconstruct the mean annual temperature (MAT) of the Pannon region at the early Holocene Thermal Maximum (HTM, warmest period of the Holocene), based on the absence of forest-dwelling conifers in the North Hungarian Mountains and their presence in the surrounding Carpathians on the same altitude. We suppose that the HTM was enough warm to drive conifers to extinction from elevations between 900 and 1100 m a.s.l. in the relatively isolated N-Hungarian Mts. Conversely, HTM still allowed the survival of residual dwarf pine ( Pinus mugo) stands on the isolated peaks of the West Transylvanian Mountains between 1600 and 1800 m a.s.l. Our study provides an estimate for the value of MAT of HTM of Pannon region with an interval of 0.4°C, relying on macroecological considerations. We calculate the temperature of the HTM 1.3–1.7°C warmer than the present temperature. This method can be used in a general sense, if conditions meet the requirements of the method even in horizontal cases, with area isolates of climate-sensitive species.

Genetic structure of Parnassius mnemosyne (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) populations in the Carpathian Basin

The pattern of genetic variation in a butterfly species depends on the past history of the given species and also on recent evolutionary processes affecting its populations. The aim of the present study was (i) to analyse the enzyme polymorphism in the Clouded Apollo populations of the Carpathian Basin to reveal the contemporary pattern of their genetic differentiation and (ii) to compare it with an expanded mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplotype network of the SE European populations. Allozyme polymorphism was analysed in 22 populations of four geographic regions: Transdanubian (TM) and North Hungarian Mountains (NM), Koros (KOR) and Bereg–Apuseni–East Carpathian regions (BEAC). The results of the Bayesian clustering analyses based on allozymes supported the presence of three main genetic lineages in the Carpathian Basin: One was typical for TM, another was characteristic for NM and the third cluster was predominant in KOR. The populations of BEAC harboured a mixture of two clusters. The mtDNA haplotype network suggested a fairly similar distribution: The peri-Alpine clade together with the West Balkan clade was detected in TM, while the East Balkan clade occurred in NM, partly in TR and in the two eastern regions of the Basin (KOR and BAEC). The incongruities between the results of the mtDNA and allozyme studies can be explained by the different timescales represented by the two markers. The mtDNA haplotype network provided strong evidence concerning the existence of two Balkan lineages, which probably formed a ‘zone of admixture’ in the Transdanubian and North Hungarian Mountains. The possibility of Last Glacial survival of Parnassius mnemosyne in the Carpathian Basin and the conservation implications of these results are discussed.

Climate change in Hungary during the twentieth century according to Feddema

Climate change in Hungary during the twentieth century is analyzed using Feddema’s original scheme suitable for global scale applications (F-GS) and Feddema’s fine-tuned scheme designed for Hungarian applications (F-HU). Input data of precipitation (P) and air temperature (T) are taken from the Climatic Research Unit (CRU) TS 1.2 database constructing P-T data referring to three 30-year periods (1901–1930, 1941–1970, 1971–2000) and two 50-year periods (1901–1950, 1951–2000). The method and data organizational effects are compared using these schemes and data sets. The results show that the evaluation of the climate change process depends much more on the methodological rather than on data organizational effects. Methodical fine-tuning effects considerably improved the spatial distribution, while the organization of data improved the insight into the dynamic of the processes. According to F-GS, there is no climate change on 76.7 % of Hungarian territory. According to F-HU, such areas amount to only 38.5 %. The main climate change process for F-GS is drying, while for F-HU drying and warming beside either drying or warming. For both models, the most climate change affected areas are characterized by higher altitudes, such as in the Mecsek and Villany Mountains (geographical region Transdanubia), in the Bukk Mountains (geographical region North Hungarian Mountains), and in the region of the so-called Danube Bend. The spatially most realistic climate description is obtained by using F-HU and the 30-year data sets. It is to be noted that Koppen’s, Holdridge’s, and Thornthwaite’s methods are less suitable than F-HU for representing the process of climate change in Hungary in the twentieth century.

Isolation and Characterisation of 15 Microsatellite Loci fromLethrus apterus(Coleoptera: Geotrupidae)

Fifteen new microsatellite markers for the beetle Lethrus apterus were developed and tested in 45 specimens from the North Hungarian Mountains. Fourteen of the markers developed were polymorphic, and the number of alleles per locus ranged from two to nine. The observed and expected heterozygosities of the polymorphic markers ranged from 0.178 to 0.578, and 0.201 to 0.698, respectively. One locus showed significant deviation from the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, probably due to null alleles. The primers were tested on four other Lethrus species (L. bituberculatus, L. scoparius, L. strymonensis and L. perun) and six other coleopteran species (Copris hispanus, Geotrupes stercorarius, Melolontha melolontha, Onthophagus taurus, Oryctes nasicornis and Protaetia affinis). Thirteen loci showed cross-amplification in the Lethrus species and only three loci could be amplified in some of the six other coleopteran species. The developed markers will be valuable in investigating the population genetic structure, behaviour and reproductive biology of L. apterus.