Non-elite Athletes Research Articles

Comparison of Mental Skills of Elite and Non-Elite Athletes

The main purpose of this reseach was to compare mental skills of elite and non-elite boys team athletes by Ottawa Questionnare. The reseach study was a descriptive-applied one. The data collection instrument was a questionnaire based on Ottawa questionnare that measured some mental skills factors. The subjects were 40 elite athletes and 40 non-elite athletes that they were randomaly taken up of basketball, volleyball, handball and futsall sport tournaments. T independent test was applied in order to analyze the related data to compare the results at p<0.05 level. The results indicated that the rate of Goal setting, self-confidence, Commitment, Stress reactions, Relaxation, Fear control, Activation, Focusing, Imagery, Competion planning, Mental practice and Refocusing skills is higher in elite athletic boy students in compare to non-elite ones.

Age at start of endurance training is associated with patterns of left ventricular hypertrophy in middle-aged runners

BackgroundLeft ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) is a physiological adaptation to long-term endurance training. We investigated the impact of age at start of endurance training on LV geometry in a cohort of male, middle-aged, non-elite endurance athletes. MethodsA total of 121 healthy, normotensive, Caucasian participants of a 10-mile race were recruited and assessed with an echocardiogram and a comprehensive interview. Athletes were classified based on patterns of LVH. ResultsThirty-five athletes (31%) had LVH. Athletes with eccentric LVH (16%) were significantly younger at start of endurance training compared to athletes with concentric LVH (15%, 14 ± 5 years vs. 31 ± 8 years; P < 0.001). Although the yearly volume of endurance training was comparable between athletes with eccentric and concentric LVH, athletes with eccentric LVH had shorter race times. All athletes with an increased LV end diastolic volume index (LVEDVI; ≥74 ml/m2) started endurance training before or at age 25. ConclusionsIn our cohort of non-elite middle-aged runners, eccentric LVH was found only in athletes with an early start of endurance training. In case of a mature starting age, endurance training may, contrary to what is commonly assumed, also lead to concentric LVH. The consideration of endurance training starting age may lead to a better understanding of morphological adaptations of the heart.

Reconsidering Return-to-Play Times: A Broader Perspective on Concussion Recovery.

Background:Return-to-play protocols describe stepwise, graduated recoveries for safe return from concussion; however, studies that comprehensively track return-to-play time are expensive to administer and heavily sampled from elite male contact-sport athletes.Purpose:To retrospectively assess probable recovery time for collegiate patients to return to play after concussion, especially for understudied populations, such as women and nonelite athletes.Study Design:Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3.Methods:Medical staff at a military academy logged a total of 512 concussion medical records over 38 months. Of these, 414 records included complete return-to-play protocols with return-to-play time, sex, athletic status, cause, and other data.Results:Overall mean return to play was 29.4 days. Sex and athletic status both affected return-to-play time. Men showed significantly shorter return to play than women, taking 24.7 days (SEM, 1.5 days) versus 35.5 days (SEM, 2.7 days) (P < .001). Intercollegiate athletes also reported quicker return-to-play times than nonintercollegiate athletes: 25.4 days (SEM, 2.6 days) versus 34.7 days (SEM, 1.6 days) (P = .002). These variables did not significantly interact.Conclusion:Mean recovery time across all groups (29.4 days) showed considerably longer return to play than the most commonly cited concussion recovery time window (7-10 days) for collegiate athletes. Understudied groups, such as women and nonelite athletes, demonstrated notably longer recovery times. The diversity of this sample population was associated with longer return-to-play times; it is unclear how other population-specific factors may have contributed. These inclusive return-to-play windows may indicate longer recovery times outside the population of elite athletes.

Prevalence of Disordered Eating among Non-elite Multisport Endurance Athletes

Prevalence of Disordered Eating among Non-elite Multisport Endurance Athletes

Exercise-induced cardiac remodeling in non-elite endurance athletes: Comparison of 2-tiered and 4-tiered classification of left ventricular hypertrophy.

BackgroundLong-term endurance sport practice leads to eccentric left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH). We aimed to compare the new 4-tiered classification (4TC) for LVH with the established 2-tiered classification (2TC) in a cohort of normotensive non-elite endurance athletes.MethodsMale participants of a 10-mile race were recruited and included when blood pressure (BP) was normal (<140/90 mmHg). Phenotypic characterization of LVH was based on relative wall thickness (2TC), and on LV concentricity2/3 (LV mass/end-diastolic volume [LVM/EDV]2/3) plus LVEDV index (4TC). Parameters of LV geometry, BP, cumulative training hours, and race time were compared between 2TC and 4TC by analysis of variance, and post-hoc analysis.ResultsOf 198 athletes recruited, 174 were included. Mean age was 41.6±7.5 years. Forty-two (24%) athletes had LVH. Allocation in the 2TC was: 32 (76%) eccentric LVH and 10 (24%) concentric LVH. Using the 4TC 12 were reclassified to concentric LVH, and 2 to eccentric LVH, resulting in 22 (52%) eccentric LVH (7 non-dilated, 15 dilated), and 20 (48%) concentric LVH (all non-dilated). Based on the 2TC, markers of endurance training did not differ between eccentric and concentric LVH. Based on the 4TC, athletes with eccentric LVH had more cumulative training hours and faster race times, with highest values thereof in athletes with eccentric dilated LVH.ConclusionsIn our cohort of normotensive endurance athletes, the new 4TC demonstrated a superior discrimination of exercise-induced LVH patterns, compared to the established 2TC, most likely because it takes three-dimensional information of the ventricular geometry into account.

A longitudinal analysis of salivary testosterone concentrations and competitiveness in elite and non-elite women athletes

BackgroundThere is evidence linking women's testosterone (T) to competitive behaviours in sport and exercise. To advance this work, we examined the longitudinal relationships between salivary T (sal-T) and competitiveness in athletic women who differ in training status. MethodsElite (n = 9) and non-elite (n = 21) women athletes were monitored on days 6–8 (follicular phase), 13–15 (ovulatory phase) and 20–22 (Luteal phase) of a menstrual cycle with two repeats. Salivary T levels were assessed before breakfast, followed by two questions (each rated on a 1–7 scale) on competitive desire and training motivation. Using a linear mixed model, we evaluated the menstrual phase and training status effects on each variable, before assessing the within-subject effects of sal-T on competitiveness. ResultsSalivary T concentrations were higher at ovulation (effect size [ES] difference = 0.2–1.4), relative to the follicular and luteal phases, with a more marked response among elite women (p < .01). The competitiveness ratings showed similar menstrual-phase variation (ES difference = 0.6–1.0 at ovulation). A positive effect of sal-T on competitiveness emerged in both groups (p < .001), but with different slope patterns (p < .015). Specifically, the elite sal-T relationships with desire to compete (standardized β = 1.147, SE = 0.132) and training motivation (β = 1.195, SE = 0.124) were stronger compared with non-elite women (β = 0.631, SE = 0.114; β = 0.778, SE = 0.114), respectively. ConclusionsMorning sal-T concentrations, competitive desire and training motivation all peaked around ovulation in women athletes. Notably, sal-T availability and its relationship with competitiveness was stronger among high-performing athletes. Our findings confirm menstrual fluctuations in T and competitiveness among naturally-cycling women, with population context as a moderating factor.

Basal and stress-induced salivary testosterone variation across the menstrual cycle and linkage to motivation and muscle power.

This study investigated salivary testosterone (sal-T) variation across the menstrual cycle in female athletes, at different competitive levels, and its association with motivation and neuromuscular power. Six elite and 16 non-elite female athletes were monitored on days 7 (D7), 14 (D14), and 21 (D21) across 3 menstrual cycles for basal sal-T concentrations and self-appraised motivation to train and compete. Two further measures were taken on D7, D14, and D21 across 2 menstrual cycles: (1) the sal-T response (delta change) to a physical stress test and (2) peak power (PP) response to a 6-second cycle sprint following a post-activation potentiation (PAP) stimulus. Basal sal-T concentrations increased by 17±27% from D7 to D14 before decreasing by -25±43% on D21 (P<.05), but this result was biased by elite females with higher sal-T (>102%) who showed larger menstrual changes. Motivation, sal-T reactivity to stress, and the PP responses to a PAP stimulus also varied by testing day (P<.05), in parallel with basal sal-T and in favor of the elite group. Furthermore, stronger within-subject relationships (P<.001) between basal sal-T and motivation emerged in the elites (r=.70-.75) vs the non-elite group (r=.41-.50). In conclusion, menstrual cycle changes in sal-T were more obvious in high-performing female athletes with higher sal-T concentrations. This was accompanied by greater training motivation, a more pronounced sal-T response to a physical stressor and greater neuromuscular power in the elite group. These results support observations that female athletes with higher T are more represented at elite levels of performance.

Development and validation of a dietary screener for carbohydrate intake in endurance athletes

BackgroundStudies have shown that the majority of endurance athletes do not achieve the minimal recommended carbohydrate (CHO) intake of 6 g/kg of body weight (BW), with potentially negative impacts on recovery and performance. The purpose of this study was to develop and validate a rapid and easy to use dietary screener to identify athletes who do and do not achieve a CHO intake > 6 g/kg BW in the context of endurance sports.MethodsThe dietary screener was developed using multiple logistic regression modeling of data from a sample of 1571 non-athlete adults (826 women and 745 men, mean age 44.75 ± 14.2 years) among whom dietary intake was assessed using a validated web-based food frequency questionnaire (web-FFQ). Three models were developed based on whole food intake using the 5, 10 and 15 most significant variables predicting CHO intake. The three models were then validated in a target population of non-elite endurance athletes having taken part in multisport events (n = 175, 64 women and 111 men, mean age 37.1 ± 11.3 years) and compared using sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values (PPV and NPV, respectively) and c-statistics.ResultsThe 15-variables model provided significantly better accuracy in predicting CHO intake adequacy in non-elite endurance athletes (c-statistic = 0.94) compared with the 10- and 5-variables model (c-statistic = 0.90 and 0.71 respectively). The 15-variables model predicts CHO intake adequacy in the target population of endurance athlete with a sensitivity of 89.5%, a specificity of 87.3% and PPV and NPV of 77.3 and 94.5%, respectively.ConclusionWe have successfully developed a short and valid dietary screener that identifies endurance athletes at risk of not achieving a CHO intake > 6 g/kg BW. Use of this rapid screener may help alleviate the highly prevalent issue of suboptimal CHO consumption in the endurance sports realm.

The Second to Fourth Digit Ratio in Elite and Non-Elite Greco-Roman Wrestlers.

A low second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D) has been reported to correlate with high performance and athletic potential of an individual in sport. It has been suggested that 2D:4D is a relatively weak predictor of strength and a stronger predictor of efficiency in aerobic exercise. Comparing extreme groups on a continuum of sports performance requiring high power (physical strength) output would be helpful to resolve this issue. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to compare the 2D:4D ratio of world-class elite Greco-Roman wrestlers (n = 10) taking part in Olympic fitness camps in 2013 with the 2D:4D ratio of non-elite collegiate wrestlers (n = 20), and age-matched sedentary males (n = 40). The 2D:4D ratios of elite wrestlers were lower compared to non-elite athletes (p < 0.01, right hand d = 1.70, left hand d = 1.67) and the control group (p < 0.0001, right hand d = 3.16, left hand d = 2.00). No significant differences were noted among the groups for right - left 2D:4D. We concluded that 2D:4D may discriminate between non-elite and world-class wrestlers. We also suggest that a low 2D:4D ratio could be linked to performance potential in wrestlers. As such, 2D:4D may provide additional information, which is valuable in determining the potential athleticism of an individual, when it is used in conjunction with other measures.

Rhinitis and its impact on quality of life in swimmers.

Limited data suggest that swimmers might be affected by rhinitis significantly more often than the general population. This can have impact on quality of life but also on performance. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and impact of QOL of rhinitis in swimming compared to nonswimming athletes and controls. This was an observational case-control, questionnaire-based study involving elite (n = 101) and nonelite swimming athletes (n = 107), nonswimming athletes (n = 38) and sex- and age-matched controls (n = 50). The survey instrument consisted of a general and the miniRQLQ. Main question used to assess the prevalence of rhinitis was from the ISAAC study. Rhinitis was reported significantly more often by the elite swimmers (45%) than nonelite swimmers (31%), nonswimming athletes (32%) and controls (24%). Allergic rhinitis prevalence was similar in all groups (12%-18%). The prevalence of nonallergic rhinitis (NAR) was significantly higher in elite swimmers (33%) and nonelite swimmers (22%) compared to nonswimming athletes and controls. Overall mean miniRQLQ score and all subdomains except the "eye" domain showed significantly reduced QOL in elite and nonelite swimmers compared to nonswimming athletes and controls. Regular nasal medication was used significantly less by elite swimmers (18%) compared to controls (67%) and nonswimming athletes (42%). This study revealed a high prevalence of NAR in swimmers and related impact on QoL. These findings highlight the importance to increase the awareness towards upper airway disorders in the swimming athletes and to ensure adequate management.

ACTN3: More than Just a Gene for Speed.

Over the last couple of decades, research has focused on attempting to understand the genetic influence on sports performance. This has led to the identification of a number of candidate genes which may help differentiate between elite and non-elite athletes. One of the most promising genes in that regard is ACTN3, which has commonly been referred to as “a gene for speed”. Recent research has examined the influence of this gene on other performance phenotypes, including exercise adaptation, exercise recovery, and sporting injury risk. In this review, we identified 19 studies exploring these phenotypes. Whilst there was large variation in the results of these studies, as well as extremely heterogeneous cohorts, there is overall a tentative consensus that ACTN3 genotype can impact the phenotypes of interest. In particular, the R allele of a common polymorphism (R577X) is associated with enhanced improvements in strength, protection from eccentric training-induced muscle damage, and sports injury. This illustrates that ACTN3 is more than just a gene for speed, with potentially wide-ranging influence on muscle function, knowledge of which may aid in the future personalization of exercise training programmes.

The Relative Age Effect, Height and Weight Characteristics among Lower and Upper Secondary School Athletes in Norway and Sweden.

The relative age effect (RAE) has been found among youth elite athletes within a range of sports. However, the RAE has been studied to a lesser degree among youth non-elite athletes, and even less among school pupils attending sport specialisation programmes (SSPs). The aim of the present study was to investigate RAE, height, and weight, and compare Swedish lower secondary school and Norwegian upper secondary school pupils. Study 1 includes 156 lower secondary school athletes (95 boys and 61 girls) following an SSP in Sweden, while study 2 includes 111 upper secondary school athletes (81 boys and 30 girls) from two Norwegian schools. The RAE was found in both male groups, but only in Swedish girls. Furthermore, the relationship between birth month, height, and weight was found to be non-significant. These results indicate a vital RAE effect among youth non-elite athletes attending SSPs in both lower and upper secondary schools.

Influence of ACTN3 R/X gene polymorphisms on racing strategy in rowing athletes

This study compared the polymorphisms RR, XX and RX of the ACTN3 gene among rowers with different race strategies across competitive levels and weight categories. We evaluated 137 rowers divided into: male non-elite openweight (n = 23), male elite openweight (n = 33), male non-elite lightweight (n = 31), male elite lightweight (n = 13), female non-elite openweight (n = 9), female elite openweight (n = 9) and female non-elite lightweight (n = 15), female elite lightweight (n = 4). The main results indicated that rowers who adopted starting/early (within the initial 500 m) or finishing/late (within the final 500 m) strategies exhibited similar ACTN3 genotype frequencies, while fewer athletes who adopted moderate (within the middle 1000 m) pacing strategies were categorised with the ACTN3 XX (8%) genotype as compared to the RR (50%) and RX (42%) genotypes (p = 0.002). Elite openweight male rowers with the ACTN3 RR more frequently preferred moderate pacing strategies (p = 0.006), while non-elite lightweight male athletes with ACTN3 RR more frequently preferred starting/early pacing strategies (p ≤ 0.001). Therefore, rowing athletes with specific ACTN3 genotypes may adopt unique race pacing strategies, while no differences were shown by competitive level or weight category.

Epidemiology of imaging-detected tendon abnormalities in athletes participating in the Rio de Janeiro 2016 Summer Olympics

BackgroundTendon abnormalities are prevalent among both elite and non-elite athletes. Cross-sectional imaging modalities are used to confirm and evaluate the severity of such lesions.AimTo describe the demographics, prevalence, anatomical location...

Poster 41: An Epidemiologic Pilot Study of Non-Elite Adaptive Athletes in Seattle

Poster 41: An Epidemiologic Pilot Study of Non-Elite Adaptive Athletes in Seattle

Plasma biomarker proteins for detection of human growth hormone administration in athletes

Human growth hormone (GH) is a naturally occurring hormone secreted by the pituitary gland with anabolic and growth-promoting activities. Since an increased availability of recombinant GH (rGH) for the treatment of GH-deficient patients, GH has been abused in sports and it is prohibited. “GH-isoform” and “biomarkers” tests are currently available for detection of GH abuse in sports, however both methods suffer from shortcomings. Here, we report on a proteomic approach to search for novel protein biomarkers associated with rGH administration in non-elite athletes. In this study, participants received either placebo or rGH for 8 weeks, and were followed over a 6-week washout period. We used 2-D DIGE and iTRAQ LC-MS/MS analyses to expose rGH-dependent marker proteins. Eight rGH-dependent plasma proteins namely apolipoproptein-L1, alpha-HS-glycoprotein, vitamin D-binding protein, afamin, insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-3, insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-ALS, lumican and extracellular matrix proteins 1 were identified. Apolipoprotein L1 and alpha-HS-glycoprotein were validated by Western blots to confirm their identities and expression patterns in rGH- and placebo-treated subject cohorts. Independent confirmation of these putative GH-responsive biomarkers would be of value for clinical practices and may have sports anti-doping utility.

Two-peaked Increase of Serum Myosin Heavy Chain-α After Ironman Demonstrates Heart Muscle Cell Death

There is an ongoing debate about the significance of cardiac troponin T (cTnT) elevation after strenuous exercise: heart muscle cell death versus physiologic mechanism of release through an intact cell membrane. While cTnT is a small molecule (37 kDa), cardiac specific myosin heavy chain-alpha (MHC-α) is much larger (224 kDa) and an increase after exercise could hardly be explained by passage through an intact cardiac cell membrane. PURPOSE: To measure MHC-α, and other biomarkers (C-reactive protein (CRP); cTnT, creatine kinase (CK), myoglobin (MG), creatinine (C), and N-terminal prohormone of brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) before and after a full distance Ironman in order to answer the question of heart muscle cell death versus physiologic changes. METHODS: In 52 non-elite athletes (14 female, 38 male; age 41.1 ± 9.7, range 24-70 years; all completed the race) biomarkers were measured by standard laboratory methods 7 days before, directly after, and day 1, 4 and 6 after the race. MHC-α was measured with a commercially available ELISA with no cross reactivity with other myosins. RESULTS: The course of MHC-α concentration [μg/L] was 1.33 ± 0.53 (before), 2.57 ± 0.78 (directly after), 1.51 ± 0.53 (day 1), 2.74 ± 0.55 (day 4) and 1.83 ± 0.76 (day 6). Other biomarkers showed a one-peaked increase with maximal values either directly after the race or at day 1: cTnT 76 ± 80 ng/L (12-440; reference <15), NT-proBNP 776 ± 684 ng/L (92-4700; ref. < 300), CK 68 ± 55 μkat/L (5-280; ref. < 1.9), MG 2088 ± 2350 μg/L (130-17000; ref. < 72), and creatinine 100 ± 20 μmol/L (74-161; ref. < 100), CRP 49 ± 23 mg/L (15-119; ref. < 5). There was a significant correlation between MHC-α and NT-proBNP (R = 0.48; p < 0.001) but neither between MHC-α and cTnT (R = 0.13; p = 0.36) nor MHC-α and myoglobin (R = 0.18; p = 0.2). CONCLUSION: An Ironman leads to remarkable disturbances in biomarkers as e.g. cTnT was in the range of myocardial infarction in 100% of women and 97% of men. This is to our best knowledge the first investigation of MHC-α after strenuous exercise and its two-peaked increase most likely represents first release from the cytosolic pool and later from cell necrosis including the contractile apparatus. However, many questions remain, not at least why MHC-α baseline levels are as high as 1.33 ± 0.53 μg/L.

단거리육상선수들의 우수선수와 비우수선수의 체력분석과 경기력 예측

The purpose of this study was to analyze physical fitness and predict performance in types of field and track athletes to figure out elite and non-elite athletes. 102 athletes in field and track participated in this study voluntarily and the athletes were divided into 3 classes(high, middle and low)based on the national competition record and coaches’poll. All the tests, such as physical volume(height, girth of chest, waist circumstance, wrist circumstance, hip circumstance), body composition(body weight, %body fat, lean body mass, BMI, WHR), physical fitness(sit-up, curl-up, flexibility, grasping power, abdominal strength and VO2max) and also anaerobic variables(mean power, peak power and fatigue) were tested to each players. The result of each variables was expressed with percentile to evaluate physical fitness. And to predict performance level(high, mid or low class), logistic regression analysis was applied. The results were as follows: Based on the results from the 3 classes, there were significant differences in physical fitness. Among the 10 physical fitness, flexibility, VO2max, mean power and peak power in high class were statistically significant than those of mid and low classes. The factors that present the level of class among the physical fitness variables were flexibility and VO2max. The logistic regression model is shown as Y=-0.316 × (flexibility) - 0.230(VO2max) + 16.913. In addition, the anaerobic factors indicating performance level were mean power and peak power. The results indicate that it is necessary further research to provide more scientific evidence not only for recruiting athletes but also for training purposes.

The origins of mental toughness–internalizing and externalizing problems at the age of 5 years predict higher mental toughness scores at the age of 14 years

BackgroundThe concept of mental toughness has gained increasing importance among non-elite athletes for its psychological importance and explanatory power for a broad range of health-related behaviors. On the flip side, no study has focused so far on the psychological origins of mental toughness. Therefore, the aims of the present study were three-fold: to explore, to what extent psychological profiles of preschoolers at the age of five years predicted mental toughness scores and sleep disturbances at the age of 14 years, and to explore possible gender differences.MethodNine years after their first assessment at the age of five years (preschoolers), a total of 77 adolescents (mean age: 14.35 years; SD = 1.22; 42% females) took part in the present follow-up study. At baseline, both parents and teachers completed the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), covering internalizing and externalizing problems, hyperactivity, negative peer relationships, and prosocial behavior. At follow-up, participants completed a booklet of questionnaires covering socio-demographic data, mental toughness, and sleep disturbances.ResultsPreschoolers with high prosocial behavior and low internalizing and externalizing problems, as rated by parents and teachers, at the age of 14 years self-reported higher mental toughness and lower sleep disturbances. At the age of 14 years, and relative to their male counterparts, female participants reported lower MT scores and higher sleep disturbances.ConclusionsThe pattern of results suggests that mental toughness traits during adolescence have their origins during pre-school years.Disclosure of interestThe authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

“I Am a lifer!” facilitating the transition into non-elite adult sport: A case study of rugby in Canada's largest city

ObjectiveSport participation shows an overall trend of decline with age (e.g., Statistics Canada, 2013), with the transition into adulthood often threatening athletes’ decision to continue in sports (e.g., Lim et al., 2011). This study explored the role of community sport clubs in facilitating sport participation throughout the youth to adult transition among non-elite athletes. DesignThis study was part of a larger project, which was guided by a case study design. MethodEight non-elite athletes (n = 5 males, n = 3 females) that had successfully transitioned from youth to adult community club rugby in Canada's largest city, engaged in semi-structured interviews. Data were analyzed through thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). ResultsClubs first played an important role prior to transition, by drawing youth to their clubs. Clubs then built a sense of loyalty, sport commitment, and identity throughout youths' transition into young adulthood; this was fostered by an appealing club philosophy and atmosphere, supportive team mates, and opportunities for senior-junior (adult-youth) mentorship. Clubs' strategies for athletes’ continued involvement into adulthood included gradual introduction to the senior (adult) level, a focus on skill development, fitness, and health, flexibility in programming, and providing opportunities for leadership roles. ConclusionsFindings are discussed through the lens of transition/adaptation models, as well as sport participation/development. Findings highlight practical implications for promoting long-term sport participation among non-elite athletes, and emphasize the importance of further research exploring the trajectories of non-elite athletes, as they successfully (or less successfully) transition into adult sport.