Sublethal Research Articles

The homing flight method to assess the effect of sublethal doses of plant protection products on the honey bee in field conditions: results of the ring tests

The homing flight method to assess the effect of sublethal doses of plant protection products on the honey bee in field conditions: results of the ring tests

Carbon δ13C Isotopic Marker Values Correlate with Carotenoid-Based Bill Colouration in Adult Yellow-Legged Gulls Larus michahellis

La coloracion basada en carotenoides que presentan muchas aves puede reflejar honestamente la calidad del individuo, ya que deben ser obtenidos mediante la dieta. Estos pigmentos son importantes para varias funciones fisiologicas y los individuos pueden buscar compensar entre la distribucion de los carotenoides para estos usos y su acumulacion para atributos sexuales secundarios y sociales. La gaviota patiamarilla Larus michahellis es una especie oportunista que se alimenta de una gran variedad de presas. En este trabajo hemos estudiado si la coloracion basada en carotenoides (pico, mancha roja, anillo orbital) esta relacionada con la ecologia trofica inferida a partir de la composicion isotopica de plumas de aves adultas en tres colonias de esta especie. El marcador isotopico del δ13C correlaciono negativamente con la coloracion basada en carotenoides (area de la mancha roja). Contrariamente a la prediccion hecha a priori, el marcador indica que un mayor consumo de presas terrestres y recursos de vertedero podria ayudar a generar una mancha roja del pico mayor en gaviotas de cualquier sexo. En hembras, no se detecto ninguna correlacion entre las signaturas isotopicas y el volumen de los huevos. El resultado de que un consumo mayor de presas marinas implica una mancha roja menor apoya otros descritos en estudios anteriores que muestran efectos aparentemente positivos de comer en ambientes terrestres humanos sobre el fenotipo de aves adultas. Los resultados pueden sugerir que un mayor consumo de presas marinas puede no ser tan positivo como el presentado en estudios previos. Sin embargo, el efecto de los componentes toxicos potenciales que se pueden obtener de algunas fuentes de alimentacion deberia ser estudiado mas a fondo. Deberiamos de considerar tambien los probables efectos subletales retardados asociados a estos habitats y que se ejercerian sobre los adultos y, probablemente tambien, sobre los pollos.

Evaluation of the Effect of Chronic 94 GHz Exposure on Gene Expression in the Skin of Hairless Rats In Vivo.

Millimeter waves (MMW) are broadband frequencies that have recently been used in several applications in wireless communications, medical devices and nonlethal weapons [i.e., the nonlethal weapon, Active Denial Systems, (ADS) operating at 94-95 GHz, CW]. However, little information is available on their potential effects on humans. These radio-frequencies are absorbed and stopped by the first layer of the skin. In this study, we evaluated the effects of 94 GHz on the gene expression of skin cells. Two rat populations consisting of 17 young animals and 14 adults were subjected to chronic long-term 94 GHz MMW exposure. Each group of animals was divided into exposed and sham subgroups. The two independent exposure experiments were conducted for 5 months with rats exposed 3 h per day for 3 days per week to an incident power density of 10 mW/cm2, which corresponded to twice the ICNIRP limit of occupational exposure for humans. At the end of the experiment, skin explants were collected and RNA was extracted. Then, the modifications to the whole gene expression profile were analyzed with a gene expression microarray. Without modification of the animal's temperature, long-term chronic 94 GHz-MMW exposure did not significantly modify the gene expression of the skin on either the young or adult rats.

Dynamics of norm contestation in the Chemical Weapons Convention: The case of ‘non-lethal agents’

In this article, we use an adapted version of Wayne Sandholtz’s cycle of normative change to examine the dynamics of contestation of norms against incapacitating chemical agents and riot control agents, often imprecisely grouped together under the term ‘non-lethal chemical weapons’. We draw on a concept-driven analysis of statements and in-depth interviews with individual stakeholders to track the gradual development of the issue towards norm change within the Chemical Weapons Convention. Our findings highlight several key factors conducive to normative change, particularly the role of the Dubrovka incident as the ‘deviant event’, discursive decoupling of the two classes of chemicals, and new framing and ‘rebranding’ of incapacitating chemical agents as ‘CNS-acting chemicals’. At the same time, we also examine factors that significantly slowed down attempts by norm entrepreneurs to attract attention to the issue, such as the saliency of the use of chemical weapons in Syria, which effectively sidelined the problem of ‘non-lethal’ agents in the overall debate.

Impact of an Oomen feeding with a neonicotinoid on daily activity and colony development of honeybees assessed with an AI based monitoring device.

Feeding experiments are standard tools in the pollinator risk assessment. The design (Oomen et al. 1992) was developed to test insect growth regulators and herbicides. In recent years there was an update (Luckmann & Schmitzer 2015) on the outline in order to also focus on the advantage of different rates making a dose response design possible where exposure levels are known. Additionally, this design gives the possibility to test different rates for honey bee colonies foraging in the same landscape. The main objective of the experiment presented here was to determine the natural variability of foragers losses of hives fed with a sub-lethal neonicotinoid concentration compared to an untreated control. Other objectives were to see if the neurotoxic exposure results in any observable sub-lethal effects and to find out if losses can be correlated to hive development. This was assessed with traditional methods and a novel, visual monitoring device.

The quick and the dead: A paradigm for studying friendly fire

The Sustained Attention to Response Task (SART) is a computer based Go-No-Go response task. Participants respond to frequently occurring neutral stimuli and withhold responses to rare target stimuli. Researchers have suggested the inhibition demands of the SART may mirror those which occur in some firearm accidents. Participants in the present experiment used a simulated nonlethal weapon to subdue threats (images of people holding guns) on large screens. Participants completed a target rich task (high Go low No-Go, like a SART), a target sparse task (low Go/high No-Go), a verbal recall task, and dual versions of the target rich and target sparse tasks with the verbal recall task as the secondary task. Results provided further evidence that some accidental shootings may result from failures of response inhibition and that additional cognitive load is detrimental to overall performance. Future studies should explore the role of response inhibition in realistic firearm scenarios.

Tasers: the ‘less-lethal’ force that heightens risk

Tasers: the ‘less-lethal’ force that heightens risk

A bioassay on tissue cholinesterase activity of Rutilus kutum (Kamensky, 1901) exposed to some common pesticides in Iran.

The toxicological effects of three commonly used pesticides in Iran on the fries of Caspian kutum (Rutilus kutum, Kamensky, 1901) were investigated through determining 50.00% lethal concentration (LC50) 96hr and cholinesterase (ChE) inhibition. The LC50 96-hr of carbaryl, glyphosate, and malathion were equal to 11.69, 6.64, and 0.97 mg L-1, respectively, that were considered as harmful (10.00 - 100 mg L-1), toxic (1.00 - 10.00 mg L-1) and very toxic (< 1.00 mg L-1) compounds for this species. The exposure of fries to sub-lethal concentrations of the pesticides over 15 days indicated that the average of ChE activity in the head and trunk were 1086.89 ± 124.34 and 627.36 ± 99.60 mU min-1 per mg protein, respectively, with a significant difference relative to each other. There was a significant difference between fry exposed to all three pesticides and the control group in cholinesterase inhibition. The fries exposed to carbaryl (890.12 ± 28.08 mU min-1 per mg protein) and glyphosate (891.77 ± 31.61 mU min-1 per mg protein) showed lower ChE inhibition than those exposed to malathion (790.00 ± 58.14 mU min-1 per mg protein).

How lethal is a pellet gun for eyes?

Background: Etiologically ocular injuries can be classified into domestic, occupational, sports, road traffic accidents, iatrogenic, fights and assaults, and war injuries. In the 1960s and 1970s, road traffic accidents became the most common cause of serious ocular injuries. In the 1980s, sports and leisure activities became a common cause of severe eye injury. The home is now the most common location for eye injuries. However, bomb blast and battlefield ocular injuries are becoming increasingly common in different parts of the world. Recently introduced non-lethal pellet guns used by law enforcement Indian agencies in Kashmir were the most common cause of ocular injuries in the valley. Objective: The objective of this study was to evaluate ocular pellet gun injuries in patients of a conflict zone by a so called non-lethal weapon as a mass control measure. Method: The study was conducted in post graduate department of Radiodiagnosis and imaging, Government Medical College, Srinagar Jammu and Kashmir. Our study was conducted between January 2019 to 15th May 2019. A total of 30 patients with ocular pellet injuries were taken up for study. Results: The most common type of injuries encountered were corneal laceration in 66.7 % eyes, vitreous haemorrhage in 52.8% and scleral laceration in 33.3% of eyes. Indirect signs like decreased volume of anterior chamber were suggestive of corneal laceration. Retained intraocular foreign body (IOFB) was seen in 7 patients and intraorbital foreign body excluding intraocular foreign body in 3 patients. Conclusion: In conclusion a so called non-lethal pellet gun used by law enforcement agencies has the potential to cause devastating ocular injuries.

Transient Thermal Responses of Skin to Pulsed Millimeter Waves

This study examines thermal responses of skin to pulsed millimeter wave (mm-wave) and radiofrequency (RF) radiation. We review limits for pulse fluence in the IEEE Std. C95.1-2019 and the 2020 guideline of the International Commission on Nonionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), as well as the recently re-affirmed guidelines of the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The focus of the study is on millimeter-wave frequencies (30-300 GHz) where energy is absorbed close to the body surface and intense pulses could potentially cause high temperature gradients at the skin, but the model is extended to lower frequencies as well. The study employs a simple one-dimensional baseline thermal model for skin and Pennes' bioheat equation (BHTE), together with a baseline model for thermal damage to skin based on a standard model. The predicted temperature increases produced by 3-sec pulses at 94 GHz are consistent with previous experimental results with no adjustable parameters in the model. The few reported data on thermal damage to the skin from pulsed 94 GHz energy are insufficient to enable a conventional analysis of damage thresholds and the data may be affected by errors in dosimetry. The baseline model suggests that the implicit limits on pulse fluence in the present FCC guidelines might allow, in extreme (but in practice unrealistic) cases, transient increases in skin temperature that approach thresholds for thermal pain but which remain well below levels anticipated to cause thermal damage. Limits on pulse fluence in the current IEEE and ICNIRP exposure guidelines would preclude such effects. Such extreme pulses are far above those that are emitted by wireless and other technologies but may be emitted by some nonlethal weapons systems. FCC's proposed “device-based time averaging” rules will restrict thermal transients in skin from mm-wave transmitters to levels that are roughly an order of magnitude below the slower temperature increases produced by the low-frequency components of the modulation waveform and appear to be excessively conservative. An appendix discusses the applicability of two approximations to the analytical solutions to the bioheat equation that can be used to estimate temperature increases in skin from exposure to mm-waves.

The Exponent of the Dependence of Impact Force on Impact Velocity

Injury may result if the head is struck by a projectile (e.g., a nonlethal weapon or a sports ball), even if the projectile is of small mass and has a soft exterior. Some theory is available concerning the dependence of maximum force on the impact velocity and mass of the projectile. In light of that, comments are made on recently published data.

DEFINITION OF NON-LETHAL WEAPON IN INTERNATIONAL LAW

This paper examines the terminology, reveals the definition of non-lethal weapon, provides a detailed analysis of the criteria for lethality of weapons, distinguishes between the concepts of non-lethal and lethal weapons, and non-lethal weapons are also separated from other items used as weapons. The international legal science also lacks the universally accepted definition of the non-lethal weapon concept. That is why the authors have paid attention to the question of terminology in relation to this weapon, as well as to the criteria on the basis of which it can be distinguished from other types.

Cross-Cultural Reactions to Peacekeeping Robots Wielding Non-Lethal Weapons

Robots may represent a safer alternative to using only human peacekeepers. However, it is unclear how civilian populations will react to such robots given the cultural diversity of affected civilians and the possibility of non-lethal or lethal weapon use by robot peacekeepers. We investigated compliance rates to simulated armed peacekeeping robots by native and expatriate Americans, Chinese, and Japanese. We predicted that compliance to robot demands would vary as a function of lethal weapon availability, robot patrol orders, and cultural background of the participants. One hundred and forty participants representing seven cultural groups performed a virtual shopping task. They were randomly interrupted six times by an anthropomorphic robotic peacekeeper requesting personal items. Participants decided to “comply” or “not comply” with the robot after each interaction and indicated their trust of the robot. Results showed that participants were more likely to comply with robotic peacekeepers wielding backup lethal weapons than those armed with only a non-lethal weapon. Chinese participants residing in America complied most; Americans living in China complied least. Older participants and those with greater nonlethal weapon familiarity showed more positive attitudes towards weapons. These results suggest that lethality, culture, and familiarity may influence interactions with armed robotic peacekeepers.

Active Denial Technology Computational Human Effects End-To-End Hypermodel (ADT CHEETEH)

We developed the Active Denial Technology Computational Human Effects End-To-End Hypermodel (ADT CHEETEH), a computational model to simulate the response of a human target to Active Denial Technology (ADT), including estimates of ADT’s physical, physiological, cognitive, and behavioral effects. The ADT system is a counter-personnel non-lethal weapon for crowd control, convoy protection, and perimeter security. The target is subjected to pulses of focused 95 GHz electromagnetic energy. The energy diffuses approximately 400 μm into the target’s skin, producing no skin damage. However, the target may still perceive a burning sensation strong enough to repel (i.e., compel the target to immediately move away). We use one model component to estimate the physical output of the ADT system, coupled with three additional components to estimate the ADT’s effect on the target’s physiology, cognition, and behavior. All components passed verification tests. Validation data was available for only the physical component, which passed its validation test. Each run of ADT CHEETEH completes in only a few minutes on a standard laptop computer, beginning with a simulation of the ADT beam formation and concluding with the estimated time at which the target is repelled. This end-to-end approach quantifies the ADT system’s main measure of effectiveness (the probability of repel) as well as its intermediate measures of performance (dose on target, temperature and damage in skin, perceived pain level, etc.) Once fully validated, ADT CHEETEH’s comprehensive results may be able to feed into force-on-force simulations to provide educated estimates of ADT effectiveness in military scenarios.

Science, Technology, and Society Approaches to Fieldwork in Geography

Geographers who take a science, technology, and society (STS) approach to research recognize that the doing of science happens within particular social and historical contexts. Additionally, the production and representation of scientific knowledge occurs via networks of human and nonhuman actors. This article considers how coconstructivist STS emphasizes the processes and practices whereby knowledge and context produce each other simultaneously. A particular focus of this article is to show how taking an STS approach alters both the construction of research questions and the doing of fieldwork, especially for those geographers less familiar with STS. Although not intended to be an in-depth introduction to STS, this article explores the central tenets of coconstructivist STS, including its ontological foundations, processes of critical knowledge production, and methods, to demonstrate the applicability of this approach to geographic inquiry. Specific fieldwork examples from case studies on nonlethal weaponry in Bangkok, Thailand, and on long-term political effects of the Chernobyl disaster in Ukraine illustrate how a coconstructivist STS approach can be meaningful to geographic research and fieldwork. Key Words: Chernobyl disaster, fieldwork methods, knowledge production, nonlethal weapons, STS.

Error Budget of Non-lethal Projectiles Using Stochastic Simulations

The maximum range of non-lethal anti personnel weapons is often limited by the projectile dispersion. Indeed, beyond a given distance, the observed dispersion of projectile on the target becomes too important. Consequently, the increased risk to miss the thorax and hit the head is deemed inadmissible. Therefore, in the development of long-range non-lethal projectiles, it is of importance to identify the primary sources of delivery errors. In this paper, Monte-Carlo simulations are used to predict the projectile dispersion. These simulations are based on ballistic models developed for non-lethal weapons. The quantification of the propagation of uncertainties across the complete ballistic cycle allows for the identification of the parameters which influence the accuracy of non-lethal weapons.

Police Use of Non-lethal Weapons: Analysis of Real Cases

The PAB or “Peloton Anti-Banditisme” has been created in 1976 on the same model as the Los Angeles Police Department SWAT. The PAB is the local special police unit of the Liege Police Zone. In terms of non-lethal equipment, the unit is equipped with the FN303 rifle, OC spray, and batons. This article provides a comprehensive presentation of case reports where non-lethal weapons have been used. Eighteen cases of FN303 uses (more than 200 impacts) combined with baton and OC spray populate the database today. These cases are described and ballistically defined, and a medical outcome is given. The article helps to better define the potential limits (injuries) of non-lethal impacts. It gives some insights about the consistency between standardized laboratory tests and the real-world experience. Ultimately, the effectiveness of these systems is portrayed and discussed.

FIREARMS OF LESION DESTRUCTION: THE ASPECTS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT, THE CONCEPT OF RELATIVE PSYCHOLOGICAL STOPPING ACTION

The article presents a comparative assessment of the relative stopping effect of firearms of limited lesion, psychological aspects of the use of non-lethal traumatic weapons. The concept of relative psychological stopping action as one of the characteristics of traumatic weapon and the method of its calculation is offered to application.

Toward a Reference Non-Lethal Projectile to Validate Blunt Trauma Injury Evaluation Models

Kinetic energy non-lethal weapon (KENLW) systems remain one of the most widespread type of non-lethal weapons on the field. NATO has recently published four standardized documents in order to assess the injury potential of such projectiles. The area of interest of this article is the documents standardizing the thoracic and the head non-penetrative impacts (STANREC 4744: AEP 99 and AEP 103). The proposed process is to shoot the projectile on a target and dynamically measure physical parameters, linked to the level of injuries. They give the user the choice of the appropriate target, as soon as the response of the system, impacted by a specific non-lethal projectile, remains in a specified range. So far, this process is performed using a commercially available projectile. This solution has two main drawbacks. On the one hand, the projectiles are rather expensive and expandable. On the other hand, the community has no control over the mechanical properties and behavior of the projectile. If the manufacturer modifies some characteristics of its projectile, the effect on the reproducibility of the test will be dramatic. The objective of this study is to propose an alternate projectile, easy to develop, called “Bullet Simulating Non-Lethal Projectiles” (BSNLP), in which the purpose is to replace the reference projectile in the standard. This projectile must be representative of the projectiles on the market, easy to produce with off-the-shelf components, and fully characterized, in order to allow the user to choose its own way to implement it. This article is focused on 40-mm projectiles. Components, characteristics, and building methodologies are presented. Then, an experimental setup is proposed and results are presented in order to compare them with other KENLW projectiles. Finally, conclusions and way ahead are presented.

Rubber Batons and Ricochets: a Case Report

This paper is actually a case report from an “accident” during SWAT team training, resulting in injuries by Fiocchi rubber baton bullets. Two people were injured in this incident, one suffering multiple finger bone fractures and the other had a 3-cm-wide and 3-cm-deep open wound in the inner thigh, with kind of distant traumas around this wound. Two versions of the incident were in dispute. The prosecutor hypothesis supposed direct shots on the victims from a distance between 5 and 10 m. The defendant version claimed that injuries resulted from uncontrolled ricochets on a concrete floor at a distance between 3 and 5 m from the victims. We had then to assess the behavior of such bullets after ricochets (angles of departure and stability after ricochet, kinetic energy retained) and the wounding ability of such bullets. Our protocol included high-speed video tracking, test shots on simulants, and Doppler radar tracking. The results showed clear support to the prosecutor version, since after a ricochet, the angle of departure never exceeded 5°, the mean loss of velocity was 39 m/s, and the flight was clearly unstable for at least 3 m. Direct shots on simulants appeared positively correlated to the wound, even though this model showed limits in its validity. This case may then be of interest for professionals in the non-lethal weapons area and those involved in army or law enforcement doctrine conception.