Non-infectious Diseases Research Articles

Triple Arthrodesis as Surgical Management of Charcot Joint with AVN Talus Caused by Neglected Old Fracture Talus with History of Diabetic Type II: A Case Report

A chronic, non-infectious degenerative disease of the foot and ankle joints, Charcot neuroarthropathy (CN) is frequently linked to peripheral neuropathy and diabetes mellitus. Joint dislocation, fractures, and deformities are its hallmarks, and they can result in serious side effects such ulceration, osteomyelitis, and limb amputation. We report the case of a 53-year-old woman who was diagnosed with a neglected talus fracture and had a 23-year history of limping due to type 2 diabetes mellitus. Clinical and radiological evaluations revealed a fixed 130° equinus deformity and extensive midfoot and hindfoot destruction, consistent with Eichenholtz Stage III Charcot joint. The patient underwent a triple arthrodesis procedure, combining debridement, osteotomy, and internal fixation using cannulated and cancellous screws, along with autologous bone graft harvested from the iliac crest. Post-operative management included non-weight-bearing mobilization and casting in a plantigrade position. Radiographic follow-up at three months showed stable fusion, proper alignment, and no signs of implant failure. Clinically, the patient reported reduced pain and improved function, with the ability to perform daily activities with minimal assistance. This case highlights the importance of timely diagnosis and appropriate surgical intervention in advanced CN to prevent further deformity and preserve limb function. Triple arthrodesis proved effective in restoring foot alignment and achieving a stable, plantigrade foot. Patient compliance and individualized treatment planning, considering comorbidities, are crucial for optimal outcomes in managing Charcot arthropathy. Keywords: Charcot neuroarthropathy, triple arthrodesis, diabetes mellitus, hindfoot deformity.

Systematic Review on Feline Internal Medicine Articles of Indonesian Veterinary Journals

This systematic review assesses the diversity of research approaches and methodologies in feline internal medicine articles published by Indonesian veterinary journals between 2012 and 2024. Content analysis was conducted on 20 veterinary journals from veterinary schools across Indonesia, with 17 journals (85%) featuring a total of 123 articles on feline internal medicine. A notable increase in articles was observed from 2017, peaking in 2023 with 35 articles (28.46%). Quantitative methods were the most commonly used in 48 articles (39.02%), followed by mixed methods in 44 articles (35.77%) and qualitative approaches in 31 articles (25.20%). Case reports were the predominant research design, found in 65 articles (52.85%), followed by cross-sectional studies (21.14%) and surveys (14.63%). Other designs included RCTs, laboratory studies, case-control, reviews, and cohort studies. Data collection techniques primarily involved testing (82.11%), with additional methods like document analysis, observation, and testing combined with interviews. Descriptive analysis was employed in 106 articles (86.18%), followed by Chi-square (5.69%) and t-test (2.44%). Infectious diseases were the focus of 67 articles (54.47%), while 44 articles (35.77%) addressed non-infectious diseases, and 12 articles (9.76%) covered other topics. The findings indicate a growing interest and methodological diversity in feline internal medicine research within Indonesia.

Frameworks to support evidence-informed decision-making in public health and infectious disease prevention and control: a scoping review.

BackgroundEvidence-informed public health decision-making (EIDM) is a complex process that must consider multiple factors.AimWe aimed to identify and describe existing frameworks supporting evidence-informed public health decision-making and their application to infectious disease.MethodsWe conducted a scoping review to describe current EIDM framework use in public health. We included decision-making frameworks in public health and examples of their use in infectious diseases. We searched MEDLINE and Health Systems Evidence from inception to December 2022. We also hand searched websites of relevant organisations and conducted a forward citation search of the included frameworks. Two reviewers selected studies independently, one reviewer extracted data and one cross-checked for accuracy. We presented the results narratively.ResultsWe included 15 frameworks. Seven had a generic scope and eight were focused on specific topics (immunisation, COVID-19 or other, non-infectious diseases). From the included frameworks, we identified a total of 18 criteria with each framework assessing a median of eight, the most frequent being 'desirable effects', 'resources considerations' and 'feasibility'. We identified infectious disease examples for four frameworks: 'Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation' (GRADE), WHO-INTEGRATe Evidence (WHO-INTEGRATE), 'Ethics, Equity, Feasibility, and Acceptability' (EEFA) and 'Community Preventive Services Task Force' (CPSTF) evidence-to-decision frameworks.ConclusionAlthough several EIDM frameworks exist for public health decision-making, most have not been widely applied to infectious diseases. Current EIDM frameworks inconsistently address factors for public health decision-making. Further application and evaluation, and possibly adaptation of existing frameworks, is required to optimise decision-making in public health and infectious diseases.

THE POSSIBILITIES OF EARLY DIAGNOSIS OF METABOLIC DISORDERS IN OBESITY

. Low-intensity chronic inflammation due to adiposopathy in visceral obesity is considered the basis for the formation of metabolic syndrome and an important component of the pathogenesis of leading non-infectious chronic diseases. The well-known anthropometric indicators of visceral obesity used in routine practice do not take into account the ectopic locations of fat depots and their contribution to the metabolic activity of adipose tissue. The search continues for universal integral indicators, including anthropometric, biochemical parameters, and the results of imaging studies reflecting early metabolic disorders in adipose tissue dysfunction. Early verification of metabolic changes associated with visceral obesity can significantly affect the prognosis of metabolic diseases and their complications.

Implementation of Pursed Lip Breathing Technique Increases Oxygenation Status and Makes Breathing Patterns More Effective in Children with Bronchial Asthma

Bronchial asthma is a condition where the respiratory tract experiences narrowing due to hyperactivity to certain stimuli which causes temporary narrowing and asthma can cause non-infectious lung disease, this narrowing can be triggered by various stimuli. Signs and symptoms that appear are wheezing, shortness of breath, coughing, difficulty breathing, especially at night, prolongation of expiratory air flow. One action that nurses can take for children with ineffective breathing patterns is: pursed lip breathing through modified balloon blowing. This study aims to increase oxygenation status and breathing pattern more effective through pursed lip breathing to children with bronchial asthma. The service was carried out by applying it to 2 children who were hospitalized with a medical diagnosis of bronchial asthma. Simulation of pursed lip breathing with modification of blowing up a balloon. Application of pursed lip breathing with modified balloon inflatables can increase oxygenation status and make breathing patterns more effective. The oxygenation status are increases and the breathing patterns more effective. This technique can be applied and taught to families of children with bronchial asthma.

Transmission of the human respiratory microbiome and antibiotic resistance genes in healthy populations

BackgroundThe human microbiome is transmissible between individuals, including pathogens and commensals with metabolic and immune-modulating effects, which could influence susceptibility, severity, and outcomes of both infection and non-infection diseases. However, limited studies of respiratory microbiome transmission within populations have been conducted. Herein, we performed species- and strain-level metagenomic analyses on oropharyngeal (OP) swabs from 1046 healthy urban dwellers across 13 districts, including 111 households with at least two cohabitants, to elucidate the transmission dynamics of the respiratory microbiome within households and communities.ResultsWe found that geographic districts accounted for the greatest variation in the OP microbiome, with unrelated individuals from the same district showing greater microbiome similarity and higher strain-sharing rates than those from different districts. Cohabitants, especially spouses and siblings, exhibited similar microbial abundances and shared more strains, with 16.7% (IQR 0.0–33.3%) of strains shared among cohabitants, compared to 0.0% (IQR 0.0–11.1%) in non-cohabiting pairs (p < 0.05). Both respiratory commensals and opportunistic pathogens were shared among cohabitants. In contrast, no evidence of vertical transmission was detected between mother–offspring pairs. Additionally, the OP microbiome contained diverse antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), with 15.0% linked to mobile genetic elements (MGEs) or plasmids; the flanking sequences of these ARGs were more conserved across species than those of non-MGE-associated ARGs, suggesting horizontal transfer of ARGs among respiratory microorganisms.ConclusionsIn summary, we characterized the transmissible nature of the OP microbiome and the risk of ARG dissemination among respiratory microorganisms. These findings underscore the role of respiratory microbes and ARGs exchange in shaping the microbiome of healthy populations and emphasize their relevance to public health strategies for respiratory health management.4cQW6ZzqCyCYGmEdL1A8oiVideo

Characterizations of lung cancer microbiome and exploration of potential microbial risk factors for lung cancer

Recent studies have indicated that the lung microbiome may contribute to the development and progression of lung cancer, although the precise mechanisms remain to be fully elucidated. This study sought to delineate the microbial composition within lung cancer tissues and identify potential microbial risk factors. Tissue samples were collected from patients newly diagnosed with pulmonary opacities, and metagenomic next-generation sequencing was employed to analyze these samples. Tissue samples were collected from 130 patients with pulmonary opacities, categorized into lung cancer (50 cases), pulmonary infection (53 cases), and non-infectious pulmonary diseases (27 cases). The non-infectious group served as the primary control. The diversity of the lung microbiome in lung cancer tissues was found to be comparable to that observed in non-infectious benign pulmonary conditions. Specific phyla and genera exhibited increased abundance in lung cancer tissues. Additionally, correlations were established between certain microorganisms and clinical characteristics associated with lung cancer. Multivariate binary logistic regression analysis revealed that age and Shewanella were independent risk factors for lung cancer development. This study suggests that the composition of the lung microbiome differs significantly between individuals with lung cancer and those with benign pulmonary conditions, with certain microbes such as Shewanella potentially serving as risk factors for lung cancer progression.

Skin Disease in Elderly: A Cross-sectional Survey in a Tertiary Care Center of Bangladesh

Background: Aging is a natural physiological process that affects various organs, including the skin. The elderly population in Bangladesh is rapidly increasing, necessitating an understanding of the common skin diseases affecting this demographic. The aim was to investigate the frequency, patterns, and associated factors of skin diseases among elderly patients attending a tertiary care center in Bangladesh. Methods: This cross-sectional survey was conducted during January 2024 to April-2024, at the department of Dermatology &amp; Venereology in Mugda Medical College Hospital, Dhaka, Bangladesh. A total of 233 elderly patients aged 60 years and above were enrolled using consecutive sampling technique. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire capturing demographics, clinical presentations, and comorbidities, followed by clinical examinations. The data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), version-23.0. Results: The mean age of the study patients was 65.64±5.54 years, with a nearly balanced gender distribution (48.92% male, 51.07% female). Common clinical presentations included itching (84.12%), redness (14.16%), and blistering (3%). Plaques (51.07%) and papules (46.35%) were the most frequent primary lesions, while scaling (53.21%) and erosion (36.05%) were common secondary lesions. Non-infectious skin diseases were more prevalent (58.79%) than infectious diseases (41.2%), with dermatitis (37.76%) and fungal infections (21.03%) being the most frequent conditions. A significant association was observed between educational level and infectious skin diseases with the study patients (p=0.001), with fungal infections more common among no formally educated patients. Similarly, diabetic-non- diabetic cases showed a significant association with infectious-non-infectious skin diseases (p=0.001). Conclusion: Skin diseases in elderly population can present with diverse clinical picture where dermatitis and fungal skin infections are more common. Patient’s educational status and comorbidities may play a role in acquiring particular illnesses. Bangladesh J Medicine 2025; 36(2): 130-135

Monitoring of Vaccination Adherence among Healthcare Workers in the Russian Federation

Relevance. Vaccination is one of the main tools of public health that helps prevent the spread of infectious diseases and maintain the health of the nation. Healthcare workers play a crucial role in vaccination matters. The confidence of healthcare workers in the necessity, effectiveness, and safety of vaccination largely determines its acceptance by the population and ultimately the success of the vaccination campaign as a whole.Aim. To study the level of vaccination adherence among healthcare workers in the Russian Federation.Materials and methods. A cross-sectional epidemiological study was conducted, consisting of three stages implemented according to a unified design. The first stage of information gathering (using anonymous electronic questionnaire) was carried in 2019, followed by the second stage in 2021, and the third one in 2023. Participants for the study were recruited using the database of National Association of Specialists for the Control of Healthcare-Associated Infections (NASCI), further sampling was formed using the snowball method. In total, over three periods, 146.244 (31.330 in 2019, 85.218 in 2021 and 29.696 in 2023) questionnaires from medical professionals of various specialties (doctors and mid-level medical staff) were analyzed. Responses were received from representatives of 79 out of 85 regions of the Russian Federation in 2019 and 2021, and from 66 out of 89 regions in 2023. For analysis and presentation of the obtained data, standard methods of descriptive statistics were used (test for normality, calculation of averages and 95% confidence intervals for quantitative variables, calculation of proportions, 95% confidence interval for qualitative variables). Statistical associations between two non-normally distributed quantitative variables were evaluated using Spearman's correlation coefficient, the statistical significance of differences in groups of qualitative variables was evaluated using the Pearson’s chi-square test at p&lt;0.05 IBM SPSS Statistics v. 22.Results. 73.8% ± 0.5% of medical workers in the Russian Federation have a positive attitude towards vaccination, 19.3% ± 0.3% are neutral, 6.9% ± 0.3% are negative in 2023. During the COVID-19 pandemic (2021), there was a significant decrease in vaccination adherence – during this period, the share of medical workers who have a negative attitude towards vaccination increased from 1.8% ± 0.2% to 18.0% ± 0.3%. The adherence of mid-level medical staff (nurses) is significantly lower than that of doctors 61.9% ± 0.3% and 79.9% ± 0.3%, respectively). The highest level of adherence is observed among pediatricians 93.4% ± 0.4%, epidemiologists 92.5% ± 1.3%, allergists-immunologists 86.1% ± 2.9%, infectious disease specialists 84.6% ± 2.2%, therapists 83.3% ± 0.5%, pulmonologists 81.8% ± 4.5%. The level of commitment among health-care workers directly involved in vaccination are 22.8% ± 12.2% higher than those who do not participate (χ2 = 3918.3, p &lt; 0.001). The vast majority of medical workers (94.4% ± 0.2%) recommend vaccination to their friends and relatives, most this applies to vaccinations against measles, hepatitis B, diphtheria, tetanus, and to a lesser extent – against infections against which vaccination is not included in the National Immunization Schedule. The majority of medical workers (72.0% ± 0.5%) are interested in receiving additional information on the vaccination.Conclusions. Awareness-raising, along with providing accessible, effective and safe vaccines, plays a key role in improving healthcare workers’ adherence to vaccination, reducing both infectious and non-infectious diseases among the population.

Effectiveness of Oral Prophylactic Antibiotics for Diagnostic Bronchoscopy: A Nationwide Database Study.

Rationale: Although guidelines generally omit routine antibiotic prophylaxis for diagnostic bronchoscopy, this recommendation is based primarily on studies with relatively small sample sizes conducted at single institutions. Moreover, the applicability of recent technical and procedural advances to these guidelines remains uncertain. Objectives: To evaluate whether oral prophylactic antibiotic administration for diagnostic bronchoscopy reduces postbronchoscopy infections among noninfectious diseases in the current setting. Methods: Using the Diagnosis Procedure Combination database, a national inpatient database in Japan, we identified patients who underwent diagnostic bronchoscopy with or without oral prophylactic antibiotics between April 2020 and March 2022. We used propensity score-stabilized inverse probability of treatment weighting and instrumental variable analyses to compare postbronchoscopy infections between the groups. Stratified analyses were also conducted on the basis of patient profiles and antibiotic types. Results: A total of 68,660 eligible patients were divided into prophylaxis (n = 10,426) and no-prophylaxis (n = 58,234) groups. Post-bronchoscopy infections were observed in 612 patients (0.89%). The stabilized inverse probability of treatment weighting analysis showed that the prophylactic group was significantly associated with a decrease in postbronchoscopy infections (odds ratio, 0.60; 95% confidence interval, 0.45-0.80). The instrumental variable analysis showed similar results (odds ratio, 0.50; 95% confidence interval, 0.34-0.74). Oral antibiotic prophylaxis was associated with reduction in postbronchoscopy infection in patients who were older than 70 years, underwent bronchoscopy for malignancy, underwent biopsy or bronchoalveolar lavage, or received aminopenicillin or fluoroquinolone for prophylaxis. Conclusions: Our findings suggest a potential role for prophylactic antibiotics in reducing postbronchoscopy infections among noninfectious patients. Although prophylactic antibiotics may help prevent these infections, their use should be carefully considered in relation to individual patient profiles and the specific antibiotics being administered.

Low-frequency ultrasound alleviates pulmonary inflammation induced by Klebsiella pneumoniae in mice by inhibiting the TNFR1/NF-κB pathway.

Low-frequency ultrasound alleviates pulmonary inflammation induced by Klebsiella pneumoniae in mice by inhibiting the TNFR1/NF-κB pathway.

Scabies and Lice Infestations in Gaza: Risk Factors and Public Health Challenges During the 2023–2024 Conflict

The recent conflict in Gaza has fostered conditions that facilitate the spread of both infectious and non-infectious diseases. The impact has been catastrophic, with tens of thousands of casualties, extensive damage to public and private buildings, and the destruction of water and sewage systems as well as desalination plants. Furthermore, hospitals and healthcare centers have been obliterated, and ∼80% of Gaza’s population has been forced into overcrowded displacement camps that are severely lacking in necessities. This review aims to shed light on the proliferation of scabies and lice during the conflict by providing a thorough analysis of relevant statistics and research. It also seeks to examine the potential risk factors contributing to this outbreak. The findings indicate a high prevalence of scabies and lice, driven by extreme overcrowding in the camps, disruptions in sewage and water systems, limited access to personal hygiene products due to import restrictions, and broader socio-economic issues. To mitigate further deterioration, the study recommends that relevant organizations provide essential cleaning and sterilization materials, medicines, and medical supplies. It is also crucial to enhance awareness among the displaced population regarding scabies and lice, and to promote effective methods for controlling and preventing these conditions.

The complete genome sequence of quail coronavirus identified in disease surveillance on quail farms in South Korea.

The complete genome sequence of quail coronavirus identified in disease surveillance on quail farms in South Korea.

Measuring the impact of hospitalization for infectious diseases on the quality of life of older patients in four European countries: the AEQUI longitudinal matched cohort study (2020-2023).

Measuring the impact of hospitalization for infectious diseases on the quality of life of older patients in four European countries: the AEQUI longitudinal matched cohort study (2020-2023).

The rate of failure of trabeculectomy and tube shunt surgery in eyes with uveitic glaucoma and ocular hypertension: The purpose of this study is to look at the outcomes of trabeculectomy and tube shunt surgery in a large cohort of patients with uveitis.

The rate of failure of trabeculectomy and tube shunt surgery in eyes with uveitic glaucoma and ocular hypertension: The purpose of this study is to look at the outcomes of trabeculectomy and tube shunt surgery in a large cohort of patients with uveitis.

Burden of noninfectious ocular inflammatory disease in US ophthalmology practice.

Burden of noninfectious ocular inflammatory disease in US ophthalmology practice.

Pneumonia Panel Precision: Evaluating Antibiotic Utilization in a Retrospective Study

IntroductionPneumonia remains a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, often necessitating antibiotic therapy. This study evaluates the potential overuse of antibiotics in pneumonia cases diagnosed with the pneumonia panel test, aiming to enhance antimicrobial stewardship and improve treatment outcomes.ObjectivesThis study aims to investigate the potential overuse of antibiotics in the treatment of pneumonia, as diagnosed by the pneumonia panel test.Materials and methodsThis retrospective observational study reviewed 224 patient records at a tertiary care centre in Kerala. Patients aged >18 years with pneumonia per ATS/IDSA guidelines were included. Exclusions encompassed non-infectious lung diseases, bronchial exam contraindications, and incomplete records. Data were entered in Excel and analysed using SPSS software version 26.ResultsThe study analyzed 224 patients with a male predominance (59.8%) and a mean age of 62 years (±16), ranging from 23 to 88 years. Among the patients, 67.4% had community-acquired pneumonia. Respiratory samples were predominantly bronchoalveolar lavage (55.4%) and sputum (44.6%), with 69.2% testing positive for bacteria, and 99.3% of these identified as typical bacteria. Acinetobacter baumannii (29%) and Klebsiella pneumoniae (24.5%) were the most common organisms. Additionally, 48.7% of samples tested positive for carbapenemase-producing genes, highlighting significant antibiotic resistance. The most prevalent enzymes were NDM (28.6%), VIM (10.7%), and OXA-48 (23.7%). The high prevalence of these enzymes indicates a significant burden of MDR pathogens, which can complicate treatment options and lead to more difficult-to-treat infections. Post-film array, meropenem (35.7%) and polymyxin B/colistin (24.1%) were the most frequently administered antibiotics. Respiratory culture showed bacterial growth in 59.4% of bacteria-positive samples, with a statistically significant P-value of 0.000. Among 109 patients with the genotype, 32 (29.4%) tested positive for carbapenemase production, compared to 5 of 115 patients without the genotype (4.3%). The results were statistically significant (p=0.000, Chi-Square=25.34), highlighting a strong link between the presence of carbapenemase genes and carbapenemase production. Polymyxin B/Colistin administration showed no significant association with carbapenem sensitivity (P=0.6, Chi-Square=0.561), despite the majority of patients having carbapenem-resistant strains (89.7%). These findings underscore the high prevalence of multidrug-resistant organisms and the importance of genotypic and rapid diagnostic methods in managing antibiotic resistance in pneumonia patients.Discussions/ConclusionsIn conclusion, both the study by Jinru Gong et al. and the current research underscore the critical importance of rapid diagnostic tools in tailoring antibiotic therapy for pneumonia. By pinpointing specific resistance markers such as NDM, IMP, and other AMR genes, these studies highlight the potential of molecular diagnostics to minimize antibiotic overuse, bolster antimicrobial stewardship, and enhance treatment outcomes. This, in turn, contributes significantly to the global effort against antimicrobial resistance. Future research involving larger datasets is essential to further validate these findings and refine diagnostic strategies for improved clinical outcomes.

Synthesis, anti-allergic rhinitis evaluation and mechanism investigation of novel 1,2,4-triazole-enamides as CB1 R antagonist.

Synthesis, anti-allergic rhinitis evaluation and mechanism investigation of novel 1,2,4-triazole-enamides as CB1 R antagonist.

Programme for ocular inflammation & infection translational research (PROTON) registry: Cross-sectional analysis of baseline patient characteristics.

The Programme for Ocular Inflammation & Infection Translational Research (PROTON) registry collects real-world data on infectious and non-infectious ocular inflammatory diseases (OID) to enhance understanding of disease progression and treatment outcomes. This report presents the baseline characteristics of patients enrolled in two international multicentric studies, OASIS 1 and OASIS 2, over the first two years. A cross-sectional observational study. PROTON is an observational ambispective cohort registry comprising OASIS 1, a retrospective study (2000-2021), and OASIS 2, a prospective study (2021 onwards). Data is collected at multiple intervals over a 10-year period, focusing on various OID. Participants include patients diagnosed with anterior uveitis, intermediate uveitis, posterior uveitis, panuveitis, scleritis, retinal vasculitis, and neuroretinitis. Baseline characteristics, ocular examinations, and treatment outcomes are recorded. A total of 2640 patients (3642 eyes) have been recruited across 17 centers worldwide. Infectious was the most common etiology (31.6 %), followed by idiopathic (28.1 %), undetermined (21.7 %), and non-infectious (16.0 %). Most patients (54.8 %) were male, with anterior uveitis being the most common anatomical location (37.5 %). Visual impairment was present in 53.2 % of cases, with 18.8 % experiencing moderate (0.5-1.0 LogMAR) and 22.6 % severe impairment (>1.0 LogMAR). Tuberculosis (64.0 %) and toxoplasmosis (13.5 %) were the leading infectious causes, while HLA-B27-associated uveitis accounted for 19.4 % of non-infectious cases. The PROTON registry provides valuable insights into the global spectrum of OID, with a substantial representation of infectious causes. This real-world evidence highlights the key prevalence of visual impairment and underscores the importance of research on this topic. As the registry evolves, it will help refine clinical management strategies and improve patient outcomes globally.

TLR4 Targeting: A Promising Therapeutic Approach Across Multiple Human Diseases.

TLR4 stands at the forefront of innate immune responses, recognizing various pathogen- associated molecular patterns and endogenous ligands, thus serving as a pivotal mediator in the immune system's defense against infections and tissue damage. Beyond its canonical role in infection, emerging evidence highlights TLR4's involvement in numerous non-infectious human diseases, ranging from metabolic disorders to neurodegenerative conditions and cancer. Targeting TLR4 signaling pathways presents a promising therapeutic approach with broad applicability across these diverse pathological states. In metabolic disorders such as obesity and diabetes, dysregulated TLR4 activation contributes to chronic low-grade inflammation and insulin resistance, driving disease progression. In cardiovascular diseases, TLR4 signaling promotes vascular inflammation and atherogenesis, implicating its potential as a therapeutic target to mitigate cardiovascular risk. Neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, exhibit aberrant TLR4 activation linked to neuroinflammation and neuronal damage, suggesting TLR4 modulation as a strategy to attenuate neurodegeneration. Additionally, in cancer, TLR4 signaling within the tumor microenvironment promotes tumor progression, metastasis, and immune evasion, underscoring its relevance as a target for anticancer therapy. Advances in understanding TLR4 signaling cascades and their contributions to disease pathogenesis have spurred the development of various pharmacological agents targeting TLR4. These agents range from small molecule inhibitors to monoclonal antibodies, with some undergoing preclinical and clinical evaluations. Furthermore, strategies involving TLR4 modulation through dietary interventions and microbiota manipulation offer additional avenues for therapeutic exploration. Hence, targeting TLR4 holds significant promise as a therapeutic strategy across a spectrum of human diseases, offering the potential to modulate inflammation, restore immune homeostasis, and impede disease progression.