non-Arctic Countries Research Articles

Collaboration network analysis for the Arctic issues based on a collection of international collaborative events

In recent years, global warming has accelerated the melting of Arctic ice. The value of the Arctic has been increasing in various aspects and has received widespread attention from the international community. The significance of globalization of the Arctic issue has become more and more prominent, the member states of the Arctic Council, observer states, and non-Arctic countries that have intensively developed and updated their respective Arctic strategies have actively participated about Arctic issues. The international collaboration has gradually become an effective way of addressing Arctic issues. In order to explore the pattern behind the collaborative events about Arctic issues, with the application of complex network analysis, the international collaborative events about Arctic issues from 2013 to 2023 are selected to construct the collaborative networks. Then the collaborative networks are quantitatively analyzed by the relevant parameters of complex network. These parameters for quantitative analysis include network density, average path length, clustering coefficient, degree centrality, closeness centrality and betweenness centrality. The results of the study reveal the changes in international collaboration about Arctic issues from 2013 to 2023.

SHAPING CHINA’S ARCTIC POLICY

The author of this article aims to identify the main directions of China’s policy in the Arctic in the 21st century. The author analyzes the change in China’s strategy and its relations with the countries of Northern Europe and Russia as important foundations of China’s activities in the Arctic region. The author notes how the policy in the region and issues of cooperation have changed, but at the same time notes the role and importance of China among non-Arctic countries. Of course, China cannot compete in the Arctic state, at least on the basis of geographical location. Nevertheless, China has huge potential to develop its participation in the Arctic region, from science to political and economic issues. The author concludes that China’s foreign policy aimed at peace and prosperity undoubtedly includes cooperation in the Arctic. Despite the policy changes of the leading Arctic and near-Arctic states, China will continue its work and has already come a long way in developing its Arctic path. In particular, one of the most important policy tools for China is the search for allies.

A comparative analysis of China’s and India’s policies in the Arctic at the present stage

Over the past few years, Asian countries have taken an active interest in the Arctic region. The key reasons for the growing interest in the Arctic are primarily the need to increase scientific knowledge and research in the Arctic, as well as the economic aspect, as these countries are quite resource-dependent. Since the Arctic represents an untapped opportunity in terms of oil and gas exploration, China and India are keen to take advantage of the geopolitical situation to gain access to the region. Today, the challenges and opportunities facing countries transcend national borders. As the world becomes more interconnected, there is a growing awareness of how decisions made in one part of the world have consequences for people far away. Therefore, it is correct to say that the Arctic falls within the strategic interests of China and India, which include the need for energy security, environmental security, and the need to protect geopolitical interests as other non-Arctic countries increase their importance in the Arctic. In this article, we will examine and compare China’s and India’s current vision of the Arctic, including the main theses from the official documents of the two states.

THE ARCTIC AND NEW TRANSIT OPPORTUNITIES FOR KAZAKHSTAN

This article examines the potential and opportunities for the development of the Arctic, international cooperation in this region between subarctic and non-Arctic countries. First of all, the article considers transit opportunities of Kazakhstan in the Arctic direction, the interests of non-Arctic China in the region, as well as the prospects for cooperation between China, Russia and Kazakhstan in the development of the Irtysh river system. As a result of directed efforts, Kazakhstan can achieve the goals of diversifying the economy and developing logistics capabilities. The paper briefly talks about the resource potential of the Arctic, the level of development of river infrastructure along the Irtysh basin, as well as the cooperation achieved between Kazakhstan and Russia, and also between Russia and China. Our country should make maximum use of the transit potential of the Irtysh for access to the port of Sabetta, and then to the Northern Sea Route. It should be noted that investments in the implementation and development of the Irtysh corridor primarily have a long-term perspective.

Analysis of the dispute over the delimitation of the continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles in the Arctic Ocean

In the 1960s, the Arctic glaciers gradually melted, while the rich mineral and fishery resources in the region triggered a new strategic layout design for the countries around the Arctic Ocean, and countries have started to fight for the rights and interests related to the outer continental shelf of the Arctic Ocean in accordance with the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. As of 2023, Russia, Canada, Norway and Denmark have applied to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) for delineation of the continental shelf, while the U.S. is also striving for the rights and interests of related resources by virtue of its geographical location. At present, in the case of the uncertainty of the delimitation of the outer continental shelf of the Arctic Ocean by the United Nations, the governance guidelines of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea for the outer continental shelf of the Arctic Ocean are relatively in line with the interests of all countries, but there are also certain practical problems, and the United States and non-Arctic countries are bound to join the competition for the relevant rights and interests, and it is difficult to avoid the relevant situation. In this regard, through improving the working mechanism of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf and formulating the Arctic Treaty, we can gradually realize the governance of the outer continental shelf in the central waters of the Arctic Ocean and maintain the healthy and benign resource circulation and utilization of the relevant sea areas.

Memories of the Future: Traditional Russian Economic and Environmental Practices in New Foreign Policy Conditions. Article two. Arctic Development

Fundamental economic and political changes at the beginning of 2022 force us to revise or refine traditional approaches to issues of national economic development. The growing conflict leads to the fact that attention to the Arctic as a region is constantly increasing. The risks of economic interference of non-Arctic countries in the affairs of Russia have significantly increased. The ecology of the Arctic is becoming the subject of international speculation.

A Brief Analysis on Non-Arctic Nations Participating in Arctic Governance

Non-Arctic States are appealed to those changes of Arctic regions in recent years, while opportunities that these countries 
 can participate in Arctic governance are provided due to the “expansion” of the Arctic Council.There are many commonplaces in 
 the affairs of the participation of non-Arctic countries, including strengthening Arctic scientific research, intensifying diplomatic 
 relations with Arctic nations, and broadening channels for Arctic participation, etc. Presently, as it is regarded as significant contents 
 of China’s participation of global governance, China has played an important role in Arctic governance. While keeping a watchful 
 on Arctic trends of other non-arctic states, China should acquire experience from them, learn from their strength, continuously 
 improve participation strategy, and deepen the participation process, in order to make contributions to realizing good governance 
 at the North Pole and benefit all mankind.

Research Networking Activities Support Sustained Coordinated Observations of Arctic Change

Rapid Arctic environmental change requires improved collaboration across observing activities that support adaptation and response from local to pan-Arctic scales. The Research Networking Activities in Support of Sustained Coordinated Observations of Arctic Change (RNA CoOBs), in partnership with the Food Security Working Group (FSWG), supports an Indigenous-led project on food security. These efforts tie into the broader goals of the Sustaining Arctic Observing Networks (SAON) Roadmap for Arctic Observing and Data Systems (ROADS). SAON is an open initiative of the International Arctic Science Committee and the Arctic Council, uniting Arctic and non-Arctic countries and Indigenous, regional, and global organizations that support improved observing network development and integration. SAON has been advancing a partnership development framework under ROADS that adds value to different observing activities by providing common context and identifying shared goals.

Relevant trends in the formation of a single legal space in the Arctic region in the sphere of environmental protection and conservation of biodiversity of the region

The circumpolar location of the Arctic region and the unity of its natural environment substantiates the need for the formation of unified approaches towards its protection, which is complicated by the differences in the legal systems of the Arctic Council member-states. Moreover, a growing number of non-Arctic countries claim to implement their scientific, economic or other activities in the region, which necessitates the creation of a single legal regime aimed at environmental protection in the region. Despite the negative changes in environmental situation of the Artic that took place in recent decades, the region still has the unique potential of flora and fauna resources, the conservation of which is one of the priority tasks. With regard to the living resources of the Arctic, the formation of unified approaches in the legislation of the Arctic states towards their conservation and use should be carried out in several directions, among which is the legal protection of ecosystems and individual species, rational use of natural resources and traditional natural resource management of the indigenous population, development of the comprehensive system of environmental monitoring, and control over the advancement of Arctic tourism. Despite certain difficulties that currently exist on the intergovernmental level, the problems of environmental protection of the Arctic zone, the solution of which due to its circumpolar location and single natural space determines the sustainable development of the Arctic Council member-states, would contribute to strengthening of cooperation and adoption of concerted decisions, including on the legislative level and formation of a single legal space in the region in the indicated sphere.

Involvement of 'Outsiders' in the Arctic Region

Since ancient times people have had access to the Arctic Circle, however, the last few decades have seen recent technological advancements that have allowed the area to be explored more comprehensively. This has created a significantly more complex picture than before as it has been called the new “Great Game.” With the rising interests of eight nations and other non-Arctic countries in the region, overlapping territorial claims have the potential to create new challenges. It is anticipated that increased interest will lead to an increase in the number of vessels transiting the region, despite harsh climate conditions. Meanwhile, the Arctic is experiencing environmental change that is inescapably leading to a new geopolitical reality. Authors, such as Jason Dittmer, have claimed that “The Arctic is evolving from a regional frozen backwater into a global hot issue.” This article discusses the colliding interests and current state of affairs of the three Arctic Council Asian observer countries, China, Japan, and South Korea, as well as those of two observer organizations, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the European Union (EU). Sustainability is one of the major priorities of these countries, which has been reflected in their Arctic policies. The reason for examining China, Japan, and South Korea is that they are growing superpowers and industrialized countries with varying interests in regards to the Arctic region.

Perils of an open Arctic

Perils of an open Arctic

Leveraging the 4th Industrial Revolution Technology for Sustainable Development of the Northern Sea Route (NSR)—The Case Study of Autonomous Vessel

The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) technology has been applied to various industrial areas not only to improve economic efficiency but also to obtain environmental and safety benefits. We paid attention to the unresolved issues of Arctic development to establish a balance between economic feasibility and social values and suggest the 4IR technologies as the solution for this. The master concept of application of the 4IR technology to NSR sailing is presented. Further, we conducted a case study for autonomous vessels. A cost breakdown structure model is specified to compare the total costs of traditional and autonomous vessels. Then, we conducted scenario analysis to investigate the economic and social effects of autonomous vessels by season and route. The results show that autonomous vessels have economic benefits compared to the traditional vessel even in the winter season, and if we realize autonomous vessels in the NSR, there are more cost saving effects than in the Suez Canal Route (SCR) in any season. As for the environmental benefits, autonomous vessels have lower gas emissions and reduced water disposal compared to the traditional vessel. Further, autonomous vessels could be a solution to provide a better crew working environment by minimizing the number of people on board. The contribution of this research is that, first, we utilize real fuel oil consumption measurement data to estimate the voyage expenses, and, second, this is a novel attempt of applying the 4IR technology as a solution for the Arctic development issue. In this respect, this research is expected to serve as a cornerstone for future research, and it will help to establish Arctic development strategies in Arctic or non-Arctic countries.

NATO in The Very Cold War: Why the US Needs Nato in the Arctic

Global warming and climate change resulting in the melting of sea ice within the Arctic have subsequently opened the possibility to explore and exploit the region. Previously seen as simply a region full of ice, the Arctic is believed to possess abundant natural resources, with an estimated 13% of undiscovered oil, 30% of natural gas resources in the world, as well as the opening of a new sea route which will be able to serve as a shortcut for countries to exchange goods - attracting states to pay closer attention to the region, be it militarily, politically, or economically, the United States being one of them. The increase in presence and power among Arctic and non-Arctic countries, especially Russia and China, has inarguably created a state of security dilemma among all parties involved, which is why if the US would like to seek a larger presence within the region, it becomes important for the country to involve NATO as one of its key partners, despite issues concerning the country and the organization. For the purpose of this paper, the aforementioned argument will further be supported using concepts of security dilemma, hegemonic stability theory, and the balance of threat.

Russia’s cooperation with Asian observers to the Arctic Council

ABSTRACT Despite being regarded as non-Arctic states, a number of Asian countries have been developing their Arctic policies and activities since mid-1990s. Being interested in securing its national interests and unique status of an Arctic great power, Russia till roughly 2013 had opposed non-Arctic countries’ engagement in Arctic issues. However, since 2013, Russia has been changing its approach with regard to participation of non-Arctic states in Arctic activities, considering them as partners. This article analyzes commercial cooperation between Russia and five Asian observers to the Arctic Council in the development of Arctic natural resources and the Northern Sea Route in the years of 2013–2020. It demonstrates how Moscow finds the balance between the need to protect its national interests in the Arctic and the necessity to cooperate with Asian countries as capable of providing Russia with financial capital and advanced technologies indispensible for further Arctic development. The author characterises Russia’s current approach towards Arctic cooperation with Asian partners as cautious pragmatism − a desire to develop beneficial partnerships with non-Arctic states within certain limits in a controllable scope. The conclusions would certainly suggest that currently, despite official rhetoric and numerous publicised plans for cooperation in the Arctic, Russia’s actual commercial engagement with Asian states is still modest. So far, the most dynamic and successful cooperation was that relating to the Arctic LNG projects. Russia and its Asian counterparts have found that moving beyond political declarations might be quite difficult. The article also concludes that while all five Asian countries search for business opportunities as contractors for Russia’s Arctic projects, only few of them − China and Japan − are ready to provide investment or financing.

China-Russia research and education collaboration in the Arctic: opportunities, challenges, and gaps

ABSTRACT Scientific cooperation in the Arctic has been rapidly developing in recent decades. In both technical and technological terms, the capability of Arctic research has significantly increased. The number of stakeholders has expanded, particularly, due to the involvement of non-Arctic countries with China being one of the most prominent actors. Many research and education projects are currently being carried out in close collaboration between China and Arctic states, including Russia. In this paper, the authors summarise priorities and objectives of China and Russia in research and education agenda in the Arctic and reveal promising areas for the two countries to collaborate in multidisciplinary areas of Arctic studies, including environment and climate, ecosystems and ecology, geology and geophysics, hydrology and sea ice. In addition to these, the authors address opportunities and gaps in collaboration in economic, social, and regional development studies, as well as maritime engineering, shipbuilding technologies, and the studies on natural resources. The paper ends up with a discussion of current capacities, potential opportunities, and major challenges for China and Russia to break through in joint research and education projects for the benefit of development and exploration of the Arctic.

АНАЛИЗ МЕЖДУНАРОДНЫХ ИНТЕРЕСОВ В АРКТИКЕ НА ПРИМЕРЕ КИТАЯ И ИНДИИ

Today, global interest in the Arctic continues to increase, and special attention is paid to the issues of comprehensive development of the Arctic region, including socio-economic development, improving the efficiency and safety of navigation in the northern seas, environmental protection and preservation of culture and improving the quality of life of indigenous peoples, by countries that at first glance are far from and have no direct interest in the region. The main platform for identifying and promoting their interests in the Arctic for non-Arctic countries is the Arctic Council, where they have the opportunity to participate as observers in the discussion of key problems of the region, as well as directly in projects implemented in the region, primarily research. Using the example of the largest non – Arctic players – China and India-this article examines the features of international interests in the Arctic from the point of view of the theory of "liberalism" and "realism", as well as the main motives and consequences of the implementation of these interests in the management of the Arctic region for the Arctic countries and the entire world community. It is concluded that, under all equal conditions, the admission and inclusiveness of the participation of non-Arctic stakeholders in Arctic affairs can ultimately change the existing structure of Arctic governance in general. China and India, considered in this article, have become actively involved in Arctic activities and have so far made a much greater contribution than the Arctic states themselves in certain areas.

Train Where You Expect to Fight: Why Military Exercises Have Increased in the High North

The new Arctic Military Exercise (ArcMilEx) dataset, which I introduce in this article, demonstrates that since 2006, Western-led military exercises have increased in the ‘High North’ (European Arctic), and that involvement in such exercises is not limited to Arctic states (26 European countries from beyond the Arctic have participated in at least one of these exercises). What the increased number of military exercises shows is that Western states (including both Arctic and non-Arctic countries) are keen to demonstrate that they have the capabilities, competence and resolve to project force in the northern high latitudes to deter potential adversaries. This paper examines the reasons behind this activity. First, it highlights the calls made by small Arctic states, especially Norway and Iceland, for their non-Arctic allies to increase their military presence in the High North. Second, it points to the renewal of NATO’s commitment to deterrence and territorial defence in Europe, including the High North, as it has sought to improve Alliance cohesion and enhance interoperability. Both developments have emerged in response to concerns growing in the West about Russia’s military ambitions in the Arctic, North Atlantic and Europe, especially since President Vladimir Putin’s re-election in 2012. The paper concludes that the material increase in Western military exercises weakens claims that cooperation is the dominant trend in the Arctic and reinforces recent scholarly analyses that paint a more complex picture of the contemporary regional security environment where conflict and cooperation go hand in hand. Using the new ArcMilEx dataset to monitor military exercises in the Arctic (and who is participating in them) is shown to be a valuable barometer of both Arctic and non-Arctic states’ concern about regional stability and security.

The Arctic Five: search for a balance of power in the region

Due to climate change, the Arctic region becomes a place of geopolitical rivalry of both Arctic and non-Arctic states. Traditional formats for determining the agenda in the region are effective, but with the advent of the interest of an increasing number of international actors, these formats are transforming, which may affect the balance of power in the region. The growing activity of Asian countries in the Arctic, primarily China, is forcing regional states to make adjustments to the development strategy of the region. The rapid renewal of its potential in the northern territories of Russia caused a negative reaction from the western countries, especially after 2014.Such aspirations have emerged as the internationalization of the region by Northern Europe and China, the desire to draw clear boundaries on the part of Russia and Canada, and the buildup of US influence on its colleagues in the North Atlantic bloc. This situation may cause an uncontrolled increase in tension in the region, especially if new alliances between the Arctic and non-Arctic countries are created. The author considers the current approaches of the countries of the Arctic five, analyzes the true motives of internationalization and the role of the format of the Arctic five in maintaining a balance of power and stability in the northern latitudes.

Military aspect of legal regulation in the Arctic

The Arctic is increasingly attracts attention of both the main regional players and the world’s leading powers. European countries realize that development of an adequate Arctic strategy requires designing and implementing a wide range of political, legal, scientific, social, economic and military measures. There are a variety of views in expert circles on military security in the Arctic. Some experts predict future conflicts starting with regional arms races both between the Arctic states and between them and non-Arctic countries. The other one emphasizes that the Arctic tends to be one of the safest world’s regions in terms of military security. The unresolved question of who owns the Arctic is among the main causes of the possible conflict in the region. The conclusion is based on the thesis of legal uncertainty of the Arctic marine areas and of the Arctic Ocean mineral resources status, as well as on unresolved disputes on the demarcation of maritime spaces and continental shelf.

The Northern Sea Route as a Tool of Arctic Development

The article is devoted to the analysis of the role of the Northern Sea Route (NSR) in the socio-economic development of the Arctic zone of Russia. The authors believe that climate change, gradually leading to the melting of polar ice, opens up new opportunities for the development of Arctic resources and navigation in the seas of the Arctic Ocean. Of particular interest to the NSR are non-Arctic countries, critically dependent on the supply of foreign mineral and carbon resources, as well as on the export of their goods to Europe. Among them, China stands out, considering the NSR as the Arctic Blue Economic Corridor as part of the global Silk Road system. The NSR is intended to become an essential tool for further development of the Arctic zone of Russia. Development of port infrastructure and creation of a modern ocean and maritime fleet will accelerate the pace of socio-economic development of this strategically important region. To do this, it is necessary to adopt a federal law on special system of preferences for investors, including foreign ones, implementing their projects in the Arctic. Among such preferences there are preferential profit tax rates, reduction in Mineral Extraction Tax (MET) rates, a declarative procedure for VAT refunds, a simplified procedure for granting land plots and unchanged conditions for the implementation of investment projects. In addition, it is important to make the NSR safe and profitable both in terms of quality of service and of price for the shippers. In particular, the payment for icebreakers’ escort of vessels should be competitive and reasonable. The largest Russian private and state-owned companies should be involved into Arctic projects. It is important to synchronize the Arctic oil and gas projects with nuclear and LNG icebreakers’ construction, as well as with the launch of two logistics hubs in Murmansk and Kamchatka. In this case, year-round NSR navigation will be organized, which will ensure the high competitiveness of Russian products supplied to the Asian Pacific markets.