Nomadic Lifestyle Research Articles

KAŞKAY TÜRKÇESİ SÖZ VARLIĞINDA HAYVANCILIKLA İLGİLİ KELİMELER

Linguistic data are the most source to make inferences about the culture, history, lifestyle and national identity of a society. Based on these linguistic data, it is known that the Old Turks had a nomadic lifestyle and thus a nomadic culture. Animals carry great importance for nomadic cultures. Albeit the Old Turks’ adaptation of a settled life in the following centuries, animals continued to have an important place in their lives, similar to those in nomadic cultures. The Qashqai people part of the Oghuz Turkish branch, either led a semi-nomadic life in the South of Iran, around the Zagros Mountains, or settled down following some reforms in Iran. The main occupations of the Qashqais are animal husbandry and agriculture. Therefore, a close look at their vocabulary established that there are many words related to animals and husbandry. Based on field work, we compiled a database of these words. This paper provides information about the Qashqai Turk and then examines the nomenclature of words related to animals and husbandry used by the nomadic Qashqai Turks.

Эстетические особенности дизайна, технологии, кроя и способов наматывания элечеков по регионам Кыргызстана

The Kyrgyz nomadic headdresses are the most significant elements of traditional clothing; they reflect the features of the nomadic lifestyle of Kyrgyz and determine their ethnical self-identification. Women's traditional headdress elechek is the most striking expression of the ethnic material culture of the Kyrgyz people. Before, wearing of this headdress reflected the woman’s age, marital status and tribal affiliation. And since the elechek was made especially for every woman, it reflected the individuality of each elechek owner as well. Kyrgyz women's headdresses differ in cut and decoration, depending on the tribal affiliation. Traditionally, elechek was always of a white color, which is traditionally meant the purity, triumph and joy of life of nomads. Kyrgyz women wore elechek after marriage or after the birth of their first child. The goal of our study is to identify the features of design, technologies, cut and winding ways of the elechek by regions of Kyrgyzstan. Another goal of our study is to identify the psychological and pedagogical resources of the winding culture and wearing of the elechek. These resources will help in educating of a harmonious personality and in finding of the place of elechek in the modern world. All these will help to reveal the significance and value of elechek for the younger generation. The main research methods: the methods of interviewing, questioning and practical work with the holders of traditional knowledge of the population of the remote parts of Kyrgyzstan. The method of reconstructing of the main kinds of elechek was used in studying of the attitude of contemporary Kyrgyz people to the traditional clothes. This article presents the materials of field studies hold in the regions of Kyrgyzstan. The reconstruction of the main types of women's headdress elechek was done upon the analyzing of these materials.

Criminal nomadism: A neglected dimension of spatial mobility in sex offending

PurposeThis study investigates criminal nomadism—an individual's propensity to engage in continuous or intermittent interurban travel as a way to cope with the consequences of their criminal lifestyle and/or as a strategy to adapt to the reality of being a “career criminal.” MethodsThe criminal-career itinerary across Canada of 448 men convicted of sex offenses was reconstructed through individual interviews and analysis of detailed criminal records. Five distinct components of criminal nomadism (i.e., trips, nodes, paths, range, and mesolevel activity space), inspired by crime pattern theory, are suggested and analyzed. ResultsResults show that criminal nomadism is the reality of young and educated Whites who have a prolific criminal career interspersed with long incarceration sentences. Nomadic offenders did not wander freely and randomly, but rather seemed to be looking for opportunities and privacy. Sex-offending variables did not make a significant contribution to predictions, suggesting that criminal nomadism is more a general offending phenomenon than something specific to sex offending. ConclusionsThis study provides supporting evidence that an extensive criminal career is generally associated with a geographically scattered and nomadic lifestyle. Implications for public policies and future studies are discussed.

Comparative analysis of the implementation of the programs of sustainable development of the SIPN in the Northernand Arctic regions of Russia and the world

In the last decade, in connection with the industrial development of the northern and Arctic territories, the question arises of preserving the original unique culture of the indigenous peoples of the North (Indigenous Peoples of the North), leading a tribal and semi-tribal way of life. Topical in the light of the increased importance of the Arctic territories of the northern countries today are the issues of protecting the social rights of the indigenous peoples, including the preservation of traditional nature management and the life of ethno-cultural communities. Since the late 1980s to date, important international legal acts have been adopted regarding peoples leading a tribal and nomadic lifestyle: International Convention No. 169 of the International Labor Organization (1989); Kari-Oka Declaration and Charter of the World's Aboriginal Peoples (1992); UN Convention on Biological Diversity (1993); United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007). These legal acts significantly increased the rating of the indigenous peoples of the North, raising the problem of their preservation to the level of global importance, and necessitated the development of a support policy. Let us consider the experience of supporting indigenous peoples on the example of countries where the proportion of such a population occupies a significant share (Canada and Norway), as well as the experience of the northern territories of Russia.

The Effect of Market Operations on Drought Induced Livestock Mortality in North Horr Ward of Marsabit County of Kenya

Drought is one of the disasters that occur naturally caused by changes in climate and weather which can lead to impacts on the economy, environment and society. The study objective was to establish the effect of access to markets on drought induced livestock mortality in Marsabit County. This study was anchored on two theories; the market theory and the theory of resource mobilisation focusing on assessing the role of market operation in reducing the livestock losses due to drought emergencies in Marsabit County. A causal design was adopted in this which is basing on quantitative approaches to figure out why phenomena happen as is often the purpose of researches carried out in social sciences. The location in which the study was done is North Horr Ward of North Horr-Sub County in Marsabit County. The study concluded that access to markets has a significant effect on drought induced livestock mortality in Marsabit County. With low accessibility to markets, the pastoralists may wish to sell of their livestock as drought situations worsen but fail to get their livestock in time to the markets. The respondents, however, observed that the accessibility to livestock markets in Marsabit County worsens during drought as herders and their livestock have to walk longer distances to the livestock. With better access to markets, pastoralists can sell away their livestock in good time ahead of serious drought catastrophes and reduce the chances of losing their livestock to mortality. Access to markets also increases the access to livestock feeds that would reduce the chances of livestock deaths due to reduced pasture.The study recommends improved accessibility of markets by the local government, national government and other stakeholders and partners should encourage the development of markets to make them more accessible for pastoralist communities in the events of droughts to help preserve the livelihoods of the households in these communities. By encouraging the development of markets, the losses in terms of livestock deaths induced by drought will be reduced, hence preserving the livelihoods. Consideration on the pastoral nomadic lifestyles of the communities should be made for increased accessibility. Development of mobile markets other than the permanent markets should be encouraged to help the communities that move further from civilisation during droughts in search for pasture to still have accessible markets to help reduce losses they incur when their livestocks die as they try to access markets.

Наименования деталей верховой упряжи коней в хакасском языке

The purpose of the study is to identify the composition of the vocabulary denoting details of the riding-horse harness in the Khakass language. The study is novel in that it is the first in Khakass linguistics to carry out a systematic analysis of the specified vocabulary. As a result of the study, the main word-formation models of the vocabulary have been identified. The etymological analysis of the names of details of the riding harness has shown that the basis of simple names are words of Turkic origin. The fact that there are many names of this small element of material culture indicates its importance in the economic and household activities of the Khakass people associated with the nomadic lifestyle.

НЕКОТОРЫЕ АСПЕКТЫ ИСТОРИОГРАФИИ ПРОБЛЕМЫ ПРАВОСЛАВНОГО МИССИОНЕРСТВА В КАЗАХСТАНЕ

The article discusses the issue of historiography of the problem of Christianization of the population of the Kazakh Territory, including Turkestan, within the Russian Empire, which saw the Russian Orthodox Church as one of the strongholds in the conduct of colonial policy in Turkestan. Christianization included a number of missionary activities, the main purpose of which was the spread of Orthodoxy, the baptism of the Gentiles, changing their socio-cultural environment through Russification, the transition to a sedentary lifestyle, etc. authorities in the religious sphere. Kazakh scientists unequivocally prove that missionary activity led to the persecution of Islam in the steppe, to the erosion of the ethnic and confessional identification of the Kazakhs, since the change of religion led to excommunication from the Kazakh society, nomadic lifestyle and language, that is, led to russification.

¿Los Gitanos, un pueblo marginado en España?

The Gypsies, an Indian people, emigrated to Spain. On their arrival, they first lived in harmony with the Spanish until the Reconquest of the territories under Muslim occupation, a reconquest carried out by the Catholic Monarchs. From 1499 onwards, they passed laws to force the Gypsies to abandon their nomadic lifestyle and adopt a settled life. From that period onwards, the life of the Gypsies would be made of problems with the monarchs who succeeded each other on the Spanish throne from the Golden Age until the vote of 1978 Constitution, which recognised rights and freedoms of the Gypsy people. These rights will be extended by those of the European Union, which is engaged in a tremendous struggle for the respect of human rights and the social integration of minorities.

ANALYSIS OF THE ROOTS OF DUALISM SEMANTICS EXISTING IN ZOOMORPHIC AND ANTHROPOMORPHIC IMAGES BELONGING TO ANCIENT TURKIC ART

The analysis of the processes of creation and development of material and spiritual values of the ancient Turkic peoples leading a nomadic lifestyle before our era is possible only when studying the subject world that has come down to us from the ancient Turks. The correct disclosure of the content of the mythological philosophical system and its symbols, images belonging to the ancient Turks, who left behind a rather small number of written samples and almost exclusively kurgan-type monuments, is based on a thorough, serious study of the hidden semantics of various zoomorphic or therioanthropomorphic compositions created by ancient masters on materials such as metal, bone and wood. The samples of decorative and applied art created by ancient Turkic masters differ not only in the plasticity of the forms themselves, compositional constructions and intense internal rhythmics, strict observance of the canons of the image. On each piece of art created by the ancient Turks, we can see an iconographic image of the harmony of the universe, which arose from the struggle of two basic life principles, one of the first philosophical systems of human civilization – dualism. The ancient Turkic art with its content was able to enrich the mythological thinking created by archaic times with new artistic forms and with new ethical and aesthetic elements. Compositions and images created by ancient Turkic masters could often fully express both artistic and philosophical, religious and ritual, and ethical content at the same time. This gave a powerful impetus to the appearance of art samples that could act as visual carriers of the mythological system inherent in the ancient Turkic world, and had a special language of description peculiar only to it. The research of the article is aimed at studying the influence of the aesthetic principles of dualism on ancient Turkic art.

ABAY’S PHILOSOPHY AND THE CULTURAL CODE OF THE KAZAKHS

The article discusses the philosophical heritage of Abay, in whose ethical teaching Kazakh philosophy reaches its most mature stage. It is noted that the thinker was able to embody in his creations the thoughts and aspirations of the Kazakhs, their concepts of being, morality and ethics. All the work of the Kazakh philosopher is full of deep reflections on a whole, universal, harmonious and moral person, and his main goal was to teach what to do and what not to do in order to become a Person, to acquaint people with the true essence of good and evil. Abay is one of those philosophers and poets who form a person’s soul, the soul of the Kazakh people, and therefore, their national identity,the formation of which proceeded in the conditions of nomadic lifestyle accompanied by interactions with other cultures. He tries to reveal a unique character of the Kazakhs’ world, i.e. their cultural code. Abay's philosophical views, permeated with the ideas of moral improvement, kindness, mercy, justice, and tolerance, perform as the basis of the Kazakh national worldview, which forms the Kazakhs’ cultural code.

Analysis of the socio-environmental impact of abandoned property

The study about absentee ownership, specifically about its impacts caused, as well the probable causes about this phenomenon represent a direct relation with human rights, especially those who protect the phenomenon of social inequality which will be the object of this scientific article. Thus, aimed to analyze a possible origin of the absentee ownership in context of human development with the nomadic lifestyle, characterized by the absence of fixed dwelling and a constant process of migration to another regions. Thereat and using the contemporary context as parameter, it was studied on legal texts aiming establish the nomenclatures adopted, as well to understand their insertion in the social environment, specifically in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro using as a focus the right to housing as fundamental and inherent in the condition of the human person. Therefore, used as a methodology the bibliographical, documental and legislative reviews about the topic, concomitant with the empirical method that served to analyze the situation of the properties. In this way, observed along with the data released by the 2010 Census, over 200 thousand in the number of abandoned properties in relation to the Brazilian housing deficit. Therefore, some initial theses served as a parameter to guide the study on the owner's inertia, ranging from waiting for the property to appreciate to the migration of a portion of the population to neighboring regions, as they cannot afford the high cost of the central region of the city, which can justify the object-problem of the work.

Digital nomad lifestyle: a liminal experience of identity transition

This study contributes to the theoretical perspectives on digital nomad identity. The aim is to go beyond the construction of the nomadic identity framed as identi-ty work in liquid modernity. In doing that, the paper offers an empirical investiga-tion of how knowledge workers construct and perform nomadic subjectivities through liminal work identities in under-institutionalized contexts and symbolic consumption. Drawing on the life history of digital nomads living in Chiang Mai and Bangkok (Thailand), this work concludes that digital nomads know or make the experience that the nomadic lifestyle is not a permanent way of life but a spe-cific stage of their life paths. Digital nomads frame their projects of self-realization through the digital nomad lifestyle as a liminal transition. The digital nomad identi-ty emerges as a temporary and opportunistic assemblage of neoliberal do-it-yourself biographies toward the emergence of a post-nomadic identity. However, the paradoxes and constraints embedded in the digital nomad lifestyle can freeze digital nomads in an objective and subjective permanent liminal condition.

Activities of “flying” medical teams in the Arkhangelsk province (end of XIX century – 1920)

The article presents a historical example of solving the issue of providing public health care in hard-to-reach and sparsely populated territories in the context of a lack of medical personnel and the danger of outbreaks of epidemic diseases. The data concerns mobile medical units, specifically their management experience and recruiting in the Far North of the European part of Russia. Particular attention is paid to little-known facts relating to the last quarter of the XIX century and the First World War. In the Arkhangelsk province, the successful experience of “flying” medical teams, tested in the conditions of warfare, began to be applied in peacetime for temporary workers at the time of fishing and hunting on the remote deserted coasts of the northern seas. Due to the expansion of social infrastructure, the need for “medical units” disappeared, but was again requested in 1916-1920, when, in conditions of war and the mobilisation of medical personnel in the army, the civilian population of remote districts did not receive sufficient medical care, which created the danger of massive epidemics. A feature of this period was the widespread involvement of women doctors in the mobile medical units, even before the officially adopted resolution on their mobilisation in wartime. The activities of mobile medical units allowed reducing the risk of epidemics by localising individual cases and preventing them from spreading among the population, which in war conditions could lead to a quarantine of the Arkhangelsk port and paralyse economic and military relations with allies. Mobile anti-epidemic units became widespread in the following decades (especially during the years of the Civil and Great Patriotic / World War II). They were and continue to be of particular importance for assisting the population of remote northern territories, primarily leading a nomadic lifestyle. The article is based on analysing a large number of original archival sources.

Biographical and Cultural Evolution of Paanar

Tamil literary tradition registers 'tinai' divisions which is "a language with in a language" comments A.K. Ramanujan as it provides infinite possibilities to create in a finite frame. Along with people in respective landscapes, there are a nomadic group of paanar who visited all five landscapes spreading the oral tradition. References about the paanar, their oral tradition and nomadic lifestyle are found in cankam literature. There are different kinds of paanar referred performers, singers, declaimers, kuttar, viraliyar, poribar and panar along with their female counterparts and characteristic instruments. Records correspond that they were nomadic and visited kings to sing their praise and receive gifts. Their female counterparts were called 'viraliyar'. The Bard community depended on Kings and patrons for their livelihood. They are also called as 'isai panar' or musical paanar. They are further classified into three 'isai panar', 'yazh panar' and 'mandai panar'. This classification is also considered as separate caste by some and separate sect by others. These three sects of paanar are the ancestors of paanar. This research paper intends to study whether this nomadic lifestyle, singing the praise of kings, depending on kings' gifts for livelihood gave the paanar contentment in life from anthropological perspective.

The impaired nomad: A bioarchaeological study on an Early Iron Age case of knee ankylosis from the Jiaerkenjiaga Cemetery, Northwestern China

AbstractAbnormality of the knee joint due to diseases or injury would disable the patient's affected leg, lead to difficulty in locomotion and daily life, and in turn makes the patient demand special care from his/her family and community. In this study, we report a case of knee fusion from Jiaerkenjiaga Cemetery, northwestern China, from a male individual who died at the age between 35 and 45 years. Carbon dating of his bone sample shows that he died during 542–391 BCE. The phenomenon was examined through macroscopic observation, digital radiography, and CT scanning. Results demonstrate that the right femur and tibia were fused at the right knee, whilst the patella was fused to the lateral condyle of the right femur. Otherwise, there were no signs of fracture, neoplasm, or other pathological conditions. It was diagnosed as knee ankylosis. It was proposed that this abnormality was likely due to the rupture of the medial patellofemoral ligament and subsequent complication of patella dislocation and septic arthritis. Given the nomadic lifestyle of the Jiaerkenjiaga people, it is speculated that the right patellofemoral ligament of this individual was torn in an accident likely related to horse riding. The well‐remodelled nature of the new bone formation indicates that the injury might have happened years before his death. The impairment would have limited his ability to walk and ride unaided, so someone in his community must have provided him with long‐term care.

Pregnancy and childbirth in women from among the indigenous minorities of the north in the context of urbanization

Data on the health status of the population of the indigenous small-numbered peoples of the North of Khanty and Mansi, who migrated to the city and changed the traditional nomadic way of life, are few and not systematized.The aim of the study was to study the course of pregnancy and childbirth among the indigenous peoples of the north who migrated and live in the city of Khanty-Mansiysk, Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug-Yugra. An increase in the frequency of gynecological diseases was revealed: menstrual irregularities (in 38.5%), inflammatory diseases of the cervix (in 42.3%) and inflammatory diseases of the uterus (in 19.2%). Half of the observed women had gastritis (50%), cholecystitis (51.9%), every fourth cystitis (23.1%), anemia was diagnosed in every third in 30.8%. Pregnancy in women of the study cohort was often complicated by early toxicosis, anemia, gestational diabetes mellitus, threatening premature birth. Childbirth in pregnant women from among the indigenous small peoples of the north living in the city was complicated by anomalies in labor, indications for emergency operative delivery. This requires further study of the health status of the indigenous peoples of the north and the development of a health improvement program.Materials and methods. The course of pregnancy, childbirth and the postpartum period was retrospectively analyzed in 168 women selected by the continuous sampling method. Women from the Khanty and Mansi KMNS living in the village of Berezovo, in the camps and in Khanty-Mansiysk were examined. Statistical processing was performed in the software package SPSS, Statistica 8.0, as well as using the Microsoft Excel analysis package.Results. The results of the study showed that the least number of deviations in the state of health were among women from the number of KMNS living in the village and in the camps and leading a traditional nomadic lifestyle. The course of pregnancy rarely had complications and 100% of women ended in spontaneous labor on time.Conclusion. The urbanization of women from among the indigenous small-numbered peoples of the north has an adverse effect on the state of somatic and reproductive health, characterized by a high frequency of gynecological diseases, pregnancy complications, labor anomalies and operative delivery.

Економічне становище Буджака татарсько-османської доби (XV–початок XIX ст.)

The article examines the main stages of the formation of the economic system of Budjak during the of its intensive settlement by Tatars and Ottomans. The main prerequisites for the formation of the economic system in the 15th–early 19th centuries are the arrival of the Tatar tribes in the region and the appearance here of Italian, Moldavian, Bulgarian trading posts, which already in the 15th century created competition for the Ottoman Empire, which led to the capture of Budjak by the Turks, who established their model of the economic system. Populating the region with Nogays and at the same time reforming trade, land, tax law, the Turks turned Budjak into a supplier of household products, wine, salt, and slaves. The main ports were Akkerman, Kiliya, Timarovo, Izmail. Economic changes also affected the Tatars, who gradually abandoned their nomadic lifestyle and became the main suppliers of food, livestock, salt to Moldova, Crimea, Turkey later, in the province of the Russian Empire. The trade and tax policies of the Crimea and the Ottoman Empire were of great importance. Despite the large number of taxes, they were not heavy and, in general, did not exceed 10% of the income of local residents. The right to trade was given to all comers, Christians and Muslims. In the 18th century, Kyrym Giray Khan developed a project for the creation of 2 commercial ports, which were supposed to supply grain to Istanbul and create competition for the ports of Turkey on the Danube. The publication reveals the role of the main ethnic groups in the economic specialization of the region. Moldovans were engaged in agriculture and wine production, Tatars – in animal husbandry, agriculture, salt mining, Turks, Ukrainians – in trade. Economic growth has strengthened the role of the Budjak ports in international trade, which has led to the interest of European states in expanding economic contacts with the region

From criminalised histories to rightful present – nomadic women demand equal rights to sexual and reproductive health: a study in Maharashtra, India

This paper presents the findings of a research study in Thane District, Maharashtra, India, on access to sexual and reproductive health and rights (SRHR) for women and girls of Nomadic and Denotified Tribes (NT-DNT). NT-DNT communities face stigma and violence due to their historically criminalised status and nomadic lifestyle. Their precarious legal, social, and economic status has a negative impact on women’s SRHR. Existing literature on this subject is sparse, and studies by researchers from within the community, which could bring about organic and community-led change, are almost non-existent. This study, carried out by a woman from a Nomadic Tribe, presents an insider’s perspective on the experiences of and factors underlying the violation of the SRHR of girls and women of NT-DNT communities. The study used a human rights-based participatory methodology with qualitative methods including three focus group discussions with 21 women and 10 in-depth interviews with women and key informants from NT-DNT communities. The findings describe the gender, community, and health system barriers which hinder women’s and girls’ access to SRHR. Issues such as language barriers between the women and medical fraternity, criminalisation by the police, and extreme deprivation – more intense than faced by the general poor – are unique to women of these communities. The NT-DNT communities face extreme deprivation of basic resources such as identity documents, shelter, sanitation, education support, workplace safety, and transportation, which further deny women their sexual and reproductive rights. The paper aims to amplify these women's voices to advocate for better SRHR services for women and girls of NT-DNT communities.

On the Idiom Boy(u)n[ıy]ıla Qulaγ[ın] Almaq in the Dresden Manuscript of the Book of Dede Qorqut

The Book of Dede Qorqut is a corpus of epic stories that provide information about the language, history, administrative and social lifes, battles, beliefs, traditions and many more like that of the Oghuz people who have a nomadic lifestyle. Among the existing manuscripts, the most intense in terms of content is the Dresden manuscript, which contains an introduction and twelve stories. Various studies have been made on the content or the vocabulary of the manuscript. It is seen that idioms with stereotyped phrases are frequently used in the manuscript, which is a very rich resource in terms of vocabulary. In this study, the phrase boy(u)n[ıy]ıla qulaγ[ın] almaq in the second story of the Dresden manuscript with the title Salur Qazanuñ ėvi yaġmalanduġı boy[ı beyān ėder] will be explained with reference to the parallel examples and witnesses existing in the historical texts of Turkish.

ОСНОВЫ ХРОНОЛОГИИ И ПЕРИОДИЗАЦИИ ИСТОРИИ ЗЕМЕЛЬ ДОНБАССА В СРЕДНИЕ ВЕКА. ЧАСТЬ 2

The authors propose a periodization of the history of the Donbas lands during the High and Late Middle Ages. The beginning of a large cycle of migration processes caused by the invasion of the Oghuz tribes invasion was a marker of the High Middle Ages in the region. The demographic crisis at the end of the 14th century is considered as a marker of the beginning of the Late Middle Ages. Generally, the Middle Ages come to an end at the late 16th century when the southern borders of the Muscovite state were systematically moving further into the steppe. Particular attention should be paid to the characteristics of the regional features of the transitional periods from the Late Middle Ages to the Modern Era: there was a change in the vector of ethnic and political dominance in the middle and lower reaches of the Seversky Donets. Conditional periods and epochs, identified according to ethno-cultural and political criteria, are as close as possible to the existing conventional periodization. The proposed local model of the periodization of the history of the Donbas lands largely does not coincide with the periodization of the history of the neighboring regions of southern Eastern Europe. The elaboration of subdivided periodization permits us to more accurately reflect the features of the historical process in the region as parts of global history. Civilization criteria of periodization become more significant in the transition from the characteristics of epochs to the characteristics of specific periods. Migration processes are an important criterion for distinguishing between different epochs. Economic and ethnopolitical processes are of decisive importance for identifying periods of local history. A distinctive feature of the evolution of the lifestyle of medieval nomads was the trend towards sedentarization, the increase in the complexity of the food supply, and the development of sedentary settlement strategies. The principles of elaborating the periodization, tested in this study, can be used in discussing the problems of periodization of global history. Discussion of variants for periodization of local history leads to the improvement of the necessary conceptual apparatus. In the context of the periodization of the history of Donbas, the term “Middle Ages” is largely a conditional concept, different from the classical model.