No-choice Condition Research Articles

Aging, cognitive complexity, and the fundamental attribution error.

Age differences in the prevalence and underpinnings of the fundamental attribution error were examined. Young, middle-aged, and older adults observed an actor providing responses to questions about political issues. In the no-choice condition, the actor was instructed how to respond, whereas in the choice condition, he was allowed to select his response. Consistent with previous research, middle-aged adults were less prone to the fundamental attribution error than were young and older adults. This was evidenced by their reduced tendency to make attitude attributions in the no-choice condition relative to the choice condition. Although high levels of both cognitive and attributional complexity were associated with reductions in attributional bias, complexity did not systematically account for the between-age-group differences in performance. It is suggested that the observed pattern of age effects is related to variations in both cognitive complexity and cognitive resources.

Applying the choice/no-choice methodology: the case of children’s strategy use in spelling

The present study illustrates the usefulness of the choice/no-choice method to investigate age-related changes in children’s strategies. This method enables independent assessments of strategy use and execution. It is applied in children’s spelling strategies. Third- and fifth-grade children were asked to write down words using a dictionary or not (choice condition). Then, they were successively required to spell words using each strategy (no-choice condition). Performance showed that (a) strategy choices and accuracy differed in younger and older children, (b) strategy effectiveness was the strongest predictor of children’s strategy use, and (c) having the choice resulted in higher level of spelling accuracy (especially in older children) than having no choice. We discuss the implications of these results on how the choice/no-choice method can be useful for understanding and investigating children’s strategy choices in spelling and other cognitive domains.

Temporal differences in mating behavior between rice- and water-oats-populations of the striped stem borer, Chilo suppressalis (Walker)(Lepidoptera: Crambidae).

Rice-feeding and water-oats-feeding populations of Chilo suppressalis usually occur over areas around paddy fields in Japan. Laboratory observations showed temporal differences in mating and female calling between the populations. The rice-population was sexually active in the first half of the scotophase whereas the water-oats-population was sexually active in the second half of the scotophase. Under a no-choice condition in the laboratory, adults of the rice- and water-oats-populations could hybridize in both reciprocal crosses. However, mating frequency was significantly lower in crossings between females of the rice-population and males of the water-oats-population than in the opposite crosses. The peak time of mating in the F1 generation was intermediate between the times of their parental populations. Similar patterns of mating time were observed in the F2 generation. These results indicate that the time of mating in C. suppressalis is genetically controlled, most likely by a polygenic system.

Parasitism Rates of Lysiphlebus testaceipes (Cresson) (Hym.: Aphidiidae) on Schizaphis graminum (Rond.) and Aphis gossypii Glover (Hem.: Aphididae)

The objective of the present study was to estimate the rates of parasitism of Lysiphlebus testaceipes (Cresson) on Schizaphis graminum (Rond.) and Aphis gossypii Glover under choice and no-choice condition tests. The experiments were carried out in a controlled environmental chamber at 25±1ºC temperature, 70±10% RH, and 12h photophase. Second and third instar aphid nymphs were used as hosts and for each colony one less than a day old L. testaceipes female was used. The previously mated and oviposition inexperienced female remained in contact with the hosts for 24 h. In the choice test 10 colonies of S. graminum and 10 colonies of A. gossypii having sections of sorghum leaves as substrate were used. For the no-choice test 10 colonies of S. graminum maintained on sections of sorghum leaves and 10 colonies of A. gossypii maintained on pepper leaves were used. In the choice test the parasitism was 67% and 46% for S. graminum and A. gossypii, respectively whereas in the no-choice test the parasitism was 76% for S. graminum and 56% for A. gossypii. Superparasitism was not observed for S. graminum. The aphid S. graminum was the most suitable for multiplication of the parasitoid L. testaceipes under laboratory conditions.

Situational Salience and Cultural Differences in the Correspondence Bias and Actor-Observer Bias

Two studies examined the correspondence bias in attitude attributions of Koreans and Americans. Study I employed the classic attitude attribution paradigm of Jones and Harris and found that both Korean and American participants displayed the correspondence bias in the no-choice condition. This lack of difference might have been due to weak salience of the situational constraints. Study 2 was designed to make the situational constraints of the no-choice condition salient in two ways: (a) by asking participants to write an essay on a topic regardless of their genuine attitude toward the topic or (b) by also making it clear to participants that the essay by the target person was almost a copy of the arguments provided by the experimenter. The results showed that (a) American attributions were unaffected by the two salience manipulations, whereas Koreans' correspondence bias decreased with increasing salience of the constraints, and (b) Koreans were less susceptible to the actor observer bias.

Evaluating the Reinforcing Effects of Choice in Comparison to Reinforcement Rate

A concurrent-operants arrangement was used to evaluate a boy’s preference for a choice condition (in which he chose the reinforcement) over a no-choice condition (in which the therapist selected the reinforcement for him) when (a) these conditions produced equal rates of reinforcement and (b) lower rates of reinforcement were associated with the choice condition. The boy preferred the choice condition even when it resulted in a much less favorable rate of reinforcement than the no-choice condition (up to 4000% less).

On the relative reinforcing effects of choice and differential consequences.

Research on the reinforcing effects of providing choice-making opportunities to individuals with developmental disabilities (i.e., allowing them to choose reinforcers or tasks) has produced inconsistent results, perhaps because the mechanisms underlying such effects remain unclear. Choice may produce a reinforcement effect because it is correlated with differential consequences (i.e., choice may increase one's access to higher preference stimuli), or it may have reinforcement value independent of (or in addition to) the chosen stimulus. In Experiment 1, we used a concurrent-operants arrangement to assess preference for a choice condition (in which participants selected one of two available reinforcers) relative to a no-choice condition (in which the therapist selected the same reinforcers on a yoked schedule). All 3 participants preferred the choice option. In Experiment 2, we altered the schedules so that the participant selected one of two lower preference reinforcers in the choice condition, whereas the therapist selected a higher preference stimulus for the participant either half or all of the time in the no-choice condition. Participants typically allowed the therapist to select reinforcers for them (i.e., they allocated responding to the no-choice condition) when it resulted in greater access to higher preference stimuli.

The similarities between cognitive dissonance and guilt: Confession as a relief of dissonance

It is proposed that dissonance is similar to the feeling of guilt. If they are in fact analogous, and confession relieves guilt, then one implication is that confession would relieve dissonance. This experiment tested this prediction using a standard induced compliance paradigm. Forty-five undergraduate subjects were assigned to either a no-choice condition, a choice-confession condition, or a choice-no-confession condition. The results indicate that confession does relieve dissonance. Further, as predicted, a negative correlation was found between attitudinal shift and guilt. The implications of the findings concerning the mechanisms of confession are discussed.

The Effects of Reasoning and Choice on Children's Prosocial Behaviour

The present study examined the effects of reasoning and choice on children's prosocial behaviour. Forty-eight secondand third-grade children were randomly assigned to a 3 X 2 design (Adult-oriented Reasoning, Beneficiaryoriented Reasoning, or No Reasoning x Choice or No Choice) where they were asked or instructed to donate one of two prizes to sick children who could not be in the study. All children donated one prize. Subjects were then given the opportunity to help "other children who were having trouble with school" and to play with toys. It was predicted that beneficiary-oriented reasoning in the first situation would lead to the most prosocial behaviour in the second, and that the least amount of prosocial behaviour would occur when children had been given no reasoning and no choice. As predicted, children were more helpful in the choice than in the no-choice condition. However, prosocial behaviour was most likely when no reasoning had been used. Results are interpreted in light of the types of reasoning used, the experience of reactance, and Lepper's (1981, 1983) minimal sufficiency principle.

Effects of situation familiarity and financial incentives on use of the anchoring and adjustment heuristic for probability assessment

Three experiments tested (1) whether anchoring (and insufficient adjustment) will occur during generation of subjective probabilities and (2) whether situation familiarity and performance-contingent incentives will reduce any anchoring effect. A total of 336 business school students either chose between two alternatives based on a preliminary judgment of relatively unlikely (low anchor) or likely (high anchor) event probabilities before generating final probability assessments or were in a no-choice control condition. The results indicate a strong anchoring effect. The anchoring effect is so dominant that increasing situational familiarity did not result in decreased anchoring. Monetary/recognition incentives for accurate judgments did, however, result in significantly less anchoring. Implications are suggested for research on judgment processes and the concept of professional judgment expertise.

Children's Artistic Creativity

Preschool boys and girls made collages using a subset of a large array of materials. Half of the children were allowed to choose those materials they would use. For the rest of the children, the choice was made by the experimenter. Children in the no-choice condition were yoked to those in the choice condition by the specific materials they were given. The collages made by children given a choice of materials were judged by a group of artists as significantly higher in creativity than those made by children given no choice. These results support the hypothesis that unconstrained choice in task approach can be conducive to creativity, whereas constrained choice can be detrimental.

Effects of Choice on Behavioral Treatment of Overweight Children

Providing subjects with a choice between treatment interventions was investigated as a means of enhancing outcome results in a behavioral weight control program for children. Subjects in the choice condition (n = 7) were led to believe that they had chosen the type of program they participated in, while subjects in the no-choice condition (n = 8) were assigned to a type of program. In reality, all subjects received the same 8-week treatment package. Posttreatment results indicated that subjects in the choice condition decreased both their weight (measured in pounds) and their degree of overweight (measured on the Weight Index) significantly more than did subjects in the no-choice condition. Choice effects are discussed in terms of implications for emphasizing choice during treatment to improve therapeutic success with overweight clients, as well as with other clinical populations.

Long-lasting reduction in ethanol selection after involuntary intake of ethanol/chlordiazepoxide

C57BL/6J mice, after having been exposed to a free-choice condition between water and aqueous chlordiazepoxide (CDP, 25 mg/100 ml) or between water and chemical ethanol/CDP, showed a significant trend for decreased preference for ethanol when tested 2 weeks later. Similarly, mice previously exposed to a no-choice intake of ethanol showed a significant decrease in ethanol preference when tested subsequently. A long-lasting (>20 weeks) reduction in ethanol selection developed after mice were previously exposed to ethanol/CDP in a no-choice condition. This was also accompanied by a decrease in the subsequent selection of ethanol/CDP, but not CDP. The exact mechanisms for the long-lasting decrease in ethanol selection was unknown, but it was not due to the development of fluid aversion. It is suggested that the combined central effects of ethanol/CDP might be partially responsible.

Choice for others and the perception of control

There has been an increasing emphasis in psychology on the perception of control over one's environment and its effect on behavior and performance. In the present experiment, subjects were allowed to choose material they would like to learn if given the opportunity, or allowed to choose material for others to learn. Their learning of a nonchosen (forced) set of materials was then examined and compared with that of subjects given no opportunity to choose at all. It was found that the choice-for-self condition led to better performance than either the choice-for-other condition or the nochoice (forced) condition. However, when an additional group of subjects was given the opportunity to choose for others and their personal involvement was augmented by emphasizing their willingness to choose, their performance was enhanced relative to subjects offered no choice. The results were discussed in terms of motivational benefits stemming from perceived control.

Attribution of attitude as a function of behavioral direction and freedom: Reactance in the eye of the observer

In a variation of the Festinger and Carlsmith dull-task paradigm an actor-stooge was given free-choice, forced-compliance choice, or no-choice as to whether he should tell the “waiting subject” that the task was dull or that the task was enjoyable. Crosscutting this three-level manipulation of behavioral freedom was a two-level manipulation of behavioral direction. The actor-stooge either chose or agreed to inform the “waiting subject” that the task was dull or that the task was enjoyable. In agreement with Jones and Davis' theory of correspondent inference observer-subjects made positively correspondent inferences in the free-choice condition, i.e., the actor-stooge was attributed with a more unfavorable attitude toward the task when he chose to advocate the dullness of the task than when he chose to advocate the enjoyableness of the task. However, within the no-choice condition, previously unobtained negative correspondent inference occurred. The actor-stooge was attributed with a more unfavorable attitude toward the task when he was required to advocate the enjoyableness of the task than when he was required to advocate the dullness of the task. These later results were interpreted as indicating that the observers attributed reactance to the actor-stooge in the condition in which the most social pressure was exerted. A second experiment demonstrated that the negative correspondence effect was not due to assumptions regarding other subjects' preference and also demonstrated the dependence of the effect on the absence of a rationale for the no-choice assignment of behavioral direction.