National Sport Organizations Research Articles

Unhealthy product sponsorship of Australian national and state sports organisations

Rona Macniven, upcoming be active 2014 conference presenter, looks at how the health benefits of sport are undermined through linking unhealthy brands with the positive aspects of sport.

Discrimination cases in grass-roots sport: comparing Australian and English experiences

Although sport is often regarded as a site of social inclusion that can provide rare opportunities for otherwise marginalized social groups, it harbours some of the most overt and extreme forms of discrimination and abuse. Recent high-profile discrimination cases involving professional footballers and spectators in the English Premier League and the Australian Football League have led to increased interest in the way national sport organisations deal with such incidents – particularly from politicians, lawyers and the mass media. This article explores the various ways in which cases of discrimination are handled in sport in two national settings of Australia and Britain, particularly at a grass-roots level. Drawing upon the professional, personal and research experience of both authors, the article surveys the changing nature of discriminatory abuse in grass-roots sports in both countries, before comparing and contrasting the various approaches taken to dealing with discrimination in Australian sport and English grass-roots football.

Protecting youth in sport: an examination of harassment policies

In response to a series of high-profile cases of sexual abuse of athletes in the 1990s, sport organizations across several nations engaged in policy development intended to introduce preventive measures and processes to address athlete maltreatment. In 1996, Sport Canada – the funding body for national sport organizations (NSOs) – stipulated that such funding was to be contingent upon each NSO having a harassment policy and trained, arm’s-length harassment officers who would address complaints. Some 17 years have passed since these requirements were mandated, and it is timely to address the current status of these policies. The purpose of this study therefore was to examine the extent to which the policies of sport organizations meet the requirements stipulated by Sport Canada. A review of a sample of sport organizations revealed that 86% of national and 71% of provincial (Ontario) sport organizations had accessible harassment policies. In many, however, critical information, such as a detailed complaint process, or articulation of the rights of the complainant and respondent was missing. Although all of the national and provincial organizations’ policies included references to a harassment officer, only 10% and 14%, respectively, actually had harassment officers; furthermore, none of these were at arm’s length to the organization. The results clearly indicate that Canada is falling far short of the requirements initially stipulated by Sport Canada for athlete protection. Recommendations are made for having a centralized pool of trained harassment officers and an approach to policies and practices that reflect a broader ‘ethic of care’ approach.

The Mediating Influence of Management by Values in Nonprofit Sport Organizations

The theory of practicing values may provide valuable insight into the role of organizational values in sport organizations. This is particularly relevant in the nonprofit sport sector where managers operate with limited budgets and organizations may subscribe to specific ethical-social values related to organizational performance. The purpose of this study was to explore the influence of organizational values on the performance of nonprofit sport organizations and the possible mediating effect of employing a management-by-values approach. Online questionnaires were collected from 24 national sport organizations, with a total sample of 103 participants. Results indicate management by values fully mediates the influence of ethical-social organizational values on organizational performance. These results are explained using the theory of practicing values, which emphasizes the need to intentionally manage values within sport organizations. Implications for research and practice are presented.

Sport sponsorship alliances: relationship management for shared value

Purpose – Using a case study of an international sport event, the purpose of this paper is to examine the inter-organisational relationship between a sport event property and its corporate sponsors. Design/methodology/approach – Interviews were conducted with personnel from the national sport organisation responsible for the delivery of this major event, and from four of its corporate sponsorship partners. Findings – The findings indicated that both formal and informal governance were critical to the relationships underpinning these sponsorship alliances. From a dyadic perspective, it was found that the satisfaction of sponsorship partners had two key elements: tangible commercial benefits from the sponsor-sponsee alliance, and the less tangible but nonetheless valuable relationship support within the partnership. In short, partner satisfaction and alliance stability stemmed from relational constructs and the balance of formal governance mechanisms. Originality/value – This paper explores the variables that generate value and maintain alliance stability for improved sponsorship governance. These findings, while focused on a single case study, have implications for research in the field of sponsorship and to the area of business-to-business relationships more broadly.

The implementation of LTAD as a template to improve youth participation in physical activity and sport. Introducing change in a sport organization

It is said that for change to be successful, 75% of an organization's management needs to “buy into” the change. Time and energy spent gaining support and building urgency, before moving onto the next steps are always worthwhile. No matter how hard a working team pushes, if others do not feel the same sense of urgency, momentum will change, complacency will set in, and some groups may even aggressively resist the proposed changes. Accepting that some short-term delays may be necessary to ensure that everything has a chance to progress smoothly will be key to success. This presentation will look at the important aspects of implementing change in an organization using a step by step approach including enhancing your knowledge of LTAD, identify and empower more champions, provide a reality check, create and share your vision, gain organizational support and communicate progress. This presentation will also provide Canadian sports’ best practices when implementing LTAD related programs along with strategies to get your organization moving forward. Most people are not comfortable with change and the uncertainty it can create. Accepting a new vision is both an intellectual and an emotional task. Everyone needs to be convinced to let go of the status quo, come to grips with the necessary sacrifices that will be required to implement the recommendations, and trust that the recommendations will improve the sports system. Support for the changes you recommend will be vital as you move forward with implementation. A well-planned communication strategy can do a great deal to help you gain buy-in from the community, reduce uncertainty, and help you identify where pockets of resistance might form as you move forward with your strategic implementation plan. To understand what must change in your sport systems and processes, you will want to fully understand its current state and then identify desired future states. These future states should be underpinned by CS4L/LTAD principles. Once these two situations are well understood, it will be possible to more effectively assess the gap that must be bridged and the scope of change that will be needed to get there. As anyone who has been lost in the woods knows, it is hard to get to where you want to go if you don’t know where you are. This is also very true for LTAD implementation. Before you can solve athletes’ development problems, you really need to identify what is happening within your sports systems (strong points and weaknesses related to the 9 pillars of developing athletes) and make as much sense of your current situation as you can. One of the first tasks will be to reflect on and describe your current sport ecosystem in many different areas and from many different perspectives. You want to try to understand as much as you can about your current systems and structures. Only analyze small pieces of the system at any one time. Since 2005, national sports organizations in Canada have started to build LTAD integrated programs. This session will give you a snapshot on successes and roadblocks faced in building an athlete-centered, coach-driven and administration-supported system. Long Term Athlete Development has been a change agent in Canada when it comes to sports programming, competition system and alignment. Several positive programs have emerged from LTAD implementation but the road to success varies from a sport to another based on culture and leadership of the organization. LTAD has always remained an athlete-centered and coach-driven approach during this change process and should always remain the main concern for any organization wishing to embrace this pathway.

Constitutional Voting Rules of Australian National Sporting Organisations: Comparative Analysis and Principles of Constitutional Design

In 2012 and 2013, four Australian national sporting organisations (NSOs), the Australian Football League, the Australian Rugby League Commission Limited, BA Limited (Basketball Australia) and Football Federation Australia Limited were also the national league competition organiser (NLCO) for their sport. All four NSOs are not-for-profit companies. We apply the model of optimal voting rules proposed by James Buchanan and Gordon Tullock to the actual voting rules adopted by the NSOs. This model focuses on the minimisation of costs associated with voting. We find that the NSO voting rules largely conform to the model although there are exceptions. In particular, constitutional issues (amendment of the constitutions of the NSOs and company wind up) require the approval of a greater proportion of the members than electoral issues (election and removal of company directors). Those issues with the highest costs (such as the appointment and removal of NSO company members and national league clubs) are typically removed from the domain of voting by company members to strengthen the independence of the NSO from the company members.

The Impact of Gender Quotas on Gender Equality in Sport Governance

A common intervention to address women’s underrepresentation in governance has been the introduction of gender quotas. This study examined the impact of gender quotas on gender equality in governance among boards of National Sport Organizations (NSOs) in Australia. Central to the study was the theoretical concept of a gender regime. Part of a larger study, the research design comprised a comparative case study of five NSOs with data collected mainly through semistructured interviews with directors and CEOs. The findings suggest that a quota of a minimum of three women was a first condition to advance gender equality in governance. It needed to operate, however, in conjunction with other gender dynamics to move toward equal participation by men and women in board decision making. These included women in influential board positions, solidaristic emotional relations between men and women directors, and directors’ adoption of gender equality as an organizational value.

Belief, Doubt, and Legitimacy in a Performance System: National Sport Organization Perspectives

With growing governmental involvement in sport, there has been a corresponding demand on national sport organizations (NSOs) to operate within performance measurement systems. In this study, we analyze data from New Zealand to determine NSO officials’ perceptions of (a) their reporting relationship with the central agency (Sport and Recreation New Zealand), and (b) the system of performance contracts (or “investment schedules”). Following Norman (2002), we found differing perceptions regarding the legitimacy of performance systems and three tensions emerged. First, the clarity of focus enabled by performance measurement was tempered by the perception of an ever-changing political environment. Second, NSO officials acted strategically and opportunistically at times, marshalling arguments around performance measures to “capture” their principal. Third, neither trust nor distrust in the system necessarily translated into compliance; some NSOs sought independence from the system. This research speaks to the legitimacy of performance systems, a significant but tenuous element to their sustainability.

Developing a performance management framework for a national sport organisation

Organisational performance has become an imperative management function within the non-profit sport context as increased pressure is placed on these organisations to provide a quality service to stakeholders in an accountable and transparent manner. The case presented here examines the issue of developing and implementing a robust performance management tool that can potentially help national sport organisation managers with the multitude of performance challenges now facing these organisations. The theoretical underpinnings of a performance management tool are presented followed by background information to a fictional national sport organisation (Racquetball Australia) and views from the CEO of the organisation in relation to the topic of performance management. The case is written from a fictional perspective so that instructors may adapt the case to suit the geographical context in which the class is taking place.

Creating sport consumers in Dutch sport policy

This article deals with the tension between the association logic and the market logic that appears in the domain of voluntary sport clubs (VSCs). We present a qualitative analysis of sport policy texts of fifteen Dutch national sport organizations (NSOs) and the national umbrella organization to examine how they discursively construct the market logic with respect to their policies towards VSCs. In this article, we argue that although there is no empirical evidence for an increasing consumerist attitude among Dutch sport participants, the policy makers of Dutch NSOs nevertheless pressure VSCs to modernize their activities according to a consumer logic that contrasts with their traditional values. We found that their policy texts construct a consumerist discourse by (1) identifying societal changes that are closely linked to consumerism as a possible threat for the future development of sport clubs and by (2) presenting the emergence of the consumer as a window of opportunity if sport clubs succeed in treating their members as such. We discuss the implications of portraying members of VSCs as consumers and conclude with a research agenda.

The performance effect of centralizing a nation's elite swim program.

Many national sporting organizations recruit talented athletes to well-resourced centralized training squads to improve their performance. To develop a method to monitor performance progression of swimming squads and to use this method to assess the progression of New Zealand's centralized elite swimming squad. Best annual long-course competition times of all New Zealand swimmers with at least 3 y of performances in an event between 2002 and 2013 were downloaded from takeyourmarks.com (~281,000 times from ~8500 swimmers). A mixed linear model accounting for event, age, club, year, and elite-squad membership produced estimates of mean annual performance for 175 swim clubs and mean estimates of the deviation of swimmers' performances from their individual quadratic trajectories after they joined the elite squad. Effects were evaluated using magnitude-based inferences, with a smallest important improvement in swim time of -0.24%. Before 2009, effects of elite-squad membership were mostly unclear and trivial to small in magnitude. Thereafter, both sexes showed clear additional performance enhancements, increasing from large in 2009 (males -1.4%±0.8%, females -1.5%±0.8%; mean±90% confidence limits) to extremely large in 2013 (males -6.8%±1.7%, females -9.8%±2.9%). Some clubs also showed clear performance trends during the 11-y period. Our method of quantifying deviations from individual trends in competition performance with a mixed model showed that Swimming New Zealand's centralization strategy took several years to produce substantial performance effects. The method may also be useful for evaluating performance-enhancement strategies introduced at national or club level in other sports.

Eating psychopathology as a risk factor for depressive symptoms in a sample of British athletes

Within the clinical literature it is accepted that there is a strong connection between eating disorders and depression; however the nature of the casual relationship is somewhat unclear. Therefore the aim of the present study was to determine the prospective relationship between eating psychopathology and depressive symptoms among competitive British athletes. A total of 122 athletes completed the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire and the depression subscale of the Symptom Checklist-90R over a 6-month period. Partial correlations revealed that when controlling for baseline eating psychopathology, athletes’ baseline depressive symptoms was not related to their eating psychopathology 6 months later. However, when controlling for baseline depressive symptoms, athletes’ initial eating psychopathology was positively and significantly related to depressive symptoms 6 months later. Subsequent hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed athletes’ initial levels of eating psychopathology significantly predicted depressive symptoms 6 months later. The current findings support the assertion that elevated eating psychopathology serves as a potential risk factor for the development of depression in athletes. Thus, National Governing Bodies, athletic clubs, sport organisations and universities need to recognise and be aware that exposure to the factors that increase the risk of eating disorders inadvertently serves to increase athletes’ vulnerability for depression.

The mental health of Australian elite athletes.

Currently, little is known about the prevalence of mental disorders in athletes. This study aims to investigate Australian elite athletes' symptoms of general psychological distress and common mental disorders. A cross-sectional survey design was employed to assess self-reported symptom prevalence. A total of 224 elite athletes (118 female, 106 male) from national sporting organisations in Australia were administered a self-report internet-based survey comprising measures of demographic status and mental health symptoms. Overall, 46.4% of athletes were experiencing symptoms of at least one of the mental health problems assessed. Percentages meeting criteria for mental disorders were similar to previous epidemiological studies of both international athlete and community samples: depression (27.2%), eating disorder (22.8%), general psychological distress (16.5%), social anxiety (14.7%), generalised anxiety disorder (7.1%), and panic disorder (4.5%). Injured athletes had higher levels of both symptoms of depression (t=3.23, p=.001) and generalised anxiety disorder (t=2.26, p=.025). The level of symptoms of mental health problems reported by elite athletes appears similar to that observed in the community. However, caution must be exercised in interpreting the findings, as possible demographic differences between athletes and comparison population datasets may exist. Furthermore, self-selection of respondents in the present study may have reduced the representativeness of the sample and the validity of the comparisons. Athletes, particularly those currently injured, should be well-supported to seek help for mental disorders through access to mental health professionals.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY HARM PREVENTION–EATING DISORDERS IN BRITISH ATHLETICS

BackgroundEating disorders are prevalent in athletics and impact on health and performance. Knowledge of how the sports environment contributes to risk can be translated into effective prevention and harm reduction.ObjectivesTo...

Strategic alliances in sport tourism: National sport organisations and sport tour operators

This qualitative case study provides a sport-oriented perspective of sport tourism. It examines a strategic alliance between an Australian national sport organisation (NSO), the Australian Rugby Union (ARU), and a sport tour operator (STO), FanFirm. The study contributes insights into how NSOs can facilitate and develop sport tourism for major events through alliances with STOs. Findings indicate that by collaborating with the STO, the ARU accrued a range of intangible and financial benefits, which in turn provided an impetus for ongoing maintenance of the strategic alliance. In addition, the alliance was perceived to deliver advantages beyond the NSO–STO nexus, with rugby fans and host governments of rugby events also benefiting. The study demonstrates that sport organisations can play a role in maximising the tourism outcomes of major events and also suggests that smaller-scale, ‘bottom-up’ cross-sector alliances can contribute to maximising tourism outcomes of major sport events.

From ‘hollow-eyed pixies’ to ‘team of adults’: media portrayals of Olympic women’s gymnastics before and after an increased minimum age policy

Plagued by criticism for its athletes being deemed too young and fragile, the International Gymnastics Federation (FIG) increased its minimum age eligibility policy for Olympic gymnasts from 15 to 16 in 1997 in an attempt to shift media perceptions of the sport in a more positive direction, lengthen gymnasts’ careers, and prevent injuries and burnout. Utilising framing theory, this study sought to determine how US-based newspapers portrayed Olympic gymnasts’ age and physical appearance over the course of eight Olympic Games, how these portrayals changed over time, and whether coverage changed after the FIG’s minimum age rule increase. US newspaper articles from every Olympics from 1984 through 2012 were analysed using qualitative document analysis methodology. Results revealed changes over time coinciding with the minimum age rule implementation. Portrayals of age shifted, with younger gymnasts being described as children and kids in the earlier years of the study and as teens or women in the later years, although language used in quotes by national sport organisations was found to perpetuate the stereotype of gymnasts as children. Regarding physical appearance, height and weight were focused on in the earlier years and excluded from coverage in the later years, although these aspects re-emerged in 2008 due to the intense scrutiny surrounding the Chinese women’s team, who were involved in an age falsification controversy. The results illustrated the powerful framing function of the media, how those outside the media can influence frames, and how controversial issues can impact media portrayals.

Performance regimes in sport policy: exploring consequences, vulnerabilities and politics

The performance measurement regimes instituted by central government sport agencies have both intended and unintended effects in relation to their network partners. The purpose of this article is to investigate the actions and interpretations of national sport organizations (NSOs) in relation to a performance regime. Drawing from data in New Zealand, two broad categories of institutional effects are identified and discussed. The first category of effects relates to the tendency for performance measurement and monitoring to reinforce the delineation/demarcation between elite and community sport due to the relative clarity of the former’s measures, and the institutionalization of ‘cream-skimming’ at national and sub-national levels. The second category of effects surrounds the apparent paradoxes and vulnerabilities of performance measurement that include the demand for indicators to ‘mushroom’ and the development of ‘gaming’ behaviours. This study highlights the tenuousness of performance measurement schemes as a feature of ‘good management’ as well as their ultimate contribution towards (or disruption of) ‘good policy’.

Leader Perceptions of Management by Values Within Canadian National Sport Organizations

This study examined sport leaders’ perceptions of the use of stated values in the management and performance of their organization. Qualitative data were collected from nine Canadian national sport organizations (NSOs) in a multiple-case studies design, involving analysis of interview transcripts. Results indicated that while many of the NSOs operated from a traditional management by objectives approach, they perceived management by values (MBV) as being important and contributing to enhanced organizational performance. Leaders indicated that more efforts to engage staff members in developing core organizational values and to strategically use values in day-to-day management practice were required. A 4-I Framework describing how an NSO can progress through different stages of strategically using values in management practice was developed. NSO leaders also voiced an interest in embedding organizational values into NSO strategic and other planning processes.

More of the same instead of qualitative leaps: A study of inertia in the Swedish sports system

Between 2007 and 2011, the Swedish government added 50 million Euro per year to the budget of the Swedish Sports Confederation (RF) for a Sports for All programme (SfA), Idrottslyftet (The Lift for Sport), with the aim of engaging more children and youth, especially those from underrepresented groups. The programme manifesto stated that all activities should be based on gender and equality perspectives and be permeated by the regular RF policy program, Idrotten vill (What sports want). In this article, we discuss mechanisms of change and inertia in the Swedish sports system by applying path dependency theory on results achieved in Idrottslyftet. Findings are based on three data sources from five National Sports Organisations (NSOs) (Swedish Budo & Martial Arts Federation, Swedish Floorball Federation, Swedish Gymnastics Federation, Swedish Ski Association and Swedish Sports Organisation for the Disabled); the data include their development plans, interviews with key personnel and granted project applications from sports clubs during the programme’s first and third year (N = 2,563). Overall, the study shows that when considering decisions and activities undertaken by the government, RF and the NSOs little has been done to enable change and to avoid inertia. The NSOs have mainly provided funds to applications that focus on recruiting instead of on applications with a qualitative approach focusing on changing activities for children and youth. Furthermore applications focused on only a few of the guidelines in Idrotten vill and lacked in general gender and equality perspectives. Our main conclusion is that projects carried out in sports clubs strengthen ongoing activities rather than being an engine for qualitative leaps in developing activities for engaging more children and youth. Finally, we note that path dependency theory has been a fruitful tool for analysing the results from Idrottslyftet. The theory has significantly contributed to a deeper understanding of inertia within the Swedish sports system.