National Research Council Requirements Research Articles

PSIV-16 Maternal Nutrient Restriction Followed by Re-alimentation Alters Distinct Metabolic Pathways in Sheep Offspring

Abstract To determine the effects of maternal nutrient restriction and re-alimentation on offspring metabolism, 48 pregnant ewes with singletons, were fed a control diet [100% National Research Council (NRC) requirements (CON)] starting at the beginning of gestation. On day 50 of gestation, ewes (n = 7) were euthanized and fetal liver, muscle, and blood samples were collected. The remaining animals were fed either CON or 60% NRC requirements (RES), a subset were euthanized at day 90 of gestation (n = 7/treatment), and fetal samples obtained. Remaining ewes were maintained on the current diet (CON-CON, n = 6; RES-RES, n = 7) or switched to alternative diet (CON-RES, RES-CON; n = 7/treatment). On day 130 of gestation, remaining ewes were euthanized, and fetal samples collected. Fetal liver, longissimus dorsi, and blood metabolites were analyzed using LC-MS/MS at Metabolon Inc. Pathway enrichment analysis was conducted using MetaboAnalyst 4.0. In liver, muscle, and blood, 64, 44, and 34 pathways were enriched between treatments at day 130 gestation and 10, 6, and 11 pathways were enriched at day 90 gestation, respectively. Arginine and proline metabolism; primary bile acid biosynthesis; and valine, leucine, and isoleucine biosynthesis were the most highly enriched pathways in RES compared with CON in liver, muscle, and blood, respectively. Additionally, the pentose phosphate pathway; valine, leucine, and isoleucine metabolism; and phenylalanine metabolism were the most highly enriched pathways in RES-CON compared with CON-CON in liver, muscle, and blood, respectively. In liver, ribulose 5-phosphate, xylulose 5-phosphate, and ribose 5-phosphate were decreased 1.82-, 1.54-, and 2.38-fold, respectively in RES-CON compared with CON-CON (P ≤ 0.05). Total triacylglycerols were increased 3.04-fold in muscle and decreased 1.57-fold in blood in RES-CON and RES-RES compared with CON-CON and CON-RES (P ≤ 0.05). Mid-gestational nutrient restriction and subsequent re-alimentation altered distinct metabolic amino acid, carbohydrate, and lipid pathways, potentially altering postnatal growth. Supported by USDA-AFRI grants 2016-67016-24884 and 2017-67016-26568.

Docosahexaenoic acid (22:6 n-3)-rich microalgae along with methionine supplementation in broiler chickens: effects on production performance, breast muscle quality attributes, lipid profile, and incidence of white striping and myopathy

The effect of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6 n-3)-rich microalgae and methionine (Met) supplementation on production performance, incidence of breast muscle white striping (WS), and pathology, lipid profile, and meat quality aspects in broiler chickens was investigated. The hypothesis tested was that feeding Met and n-3 fatty acid (FA)-rich diet enhances muscle n-3 FA content and meat quality while attenuating breast muscle WS and myopathy in broiler chickens. One hundred and forty four (n = 144) 10-day-old Cornish cross chicks were fed a corn-soybean meal-based diet containing 0% microalgae (control), 2% microalgae (diet 1), and diet 1 + 100% more National Research Council requirement of Met (diet 2) up to day 42 of growth. All diets were isocaloric and isonitrogenous. The chicks were kept in 6 pens with 8 chicks per replicate pen. Feed consumption and feed efficiency were calculated on day 21 and 42. On day 43, 3 chicks per pen (n = 18/treatment) were euthanized. The breast muscle (pectoralis major) was visually scored for muscle WS (1 = no striping, 2 = mild, 3 = severe) and was subjected to histopathology. Breast muscle lipid profile (total lipids, FA composition, cholesterol, lipid oxidation products), quality (moisture, color, drip loss, shear force, cook loss, pH), and chemical characterization (protein, minerals) were recorded. A one-way analysis of variance was carried out with diet as the main factor and significance was set at P < 0.05. The incidence of muscle WS was lower (P < 0.02) for control vs. diet 2 and a trend for reduction in WS was observed in birds fed diet 1 vs. control (P = 0.09). Histopathological changes consisted of floccular or vacuolar degeneration, fibrosis, lipidosis, interstitial inflammation, and lysis of fibers, and were minimal in diet 2 when compared to control (P < 0.05). The total lipid content was lowest in birds fed diet 1 (P < 0.05). Total n-3 and total long chain (≥20C) n-3 FA were highest in the breast muscle of diet 2 birds (P < 0.05). Muscle drip loss and shear force were highest in diet 2 (P < 0.05). Meat color (a∗, redness) was reduced (P < 0.05) and a trend for reduction in b∗ (yellowness) was observed in diet 2 (P = 0.07). No effect of diet on body weight gain, feed efficiency, breast muscle yield, pH, moisture, lipid oxidation products, cook loss, minerals (Ca, P, Mg, Na), cholesterol, or protein content was observed (P > 0.05). The results demonstrated a significant effect of DHA-rich microalgae along with Met supplementation in reducing the incidence of breast muscle striping and myopathy, while enriching meat with n-3 FA. However, inclusion of Met in microalgae-based diets could influence meat tenderness and color.

Post-ruminal supplies of glucose and casein, but not acetate, stimulate milk protein synthesis in dairy cows through differential effects on mammary metabolism

Amino acids and glucose have been shown to regulate protein synthesis in the mammary gland through their effects on cellular signaling pathways. Acetate might also have an effect on protein synthesis via the AMP-activated kinase signaling pathway, because it is the main energy source for the mammary secretory cell. Thus, the objective of this experiment was to evaluate the effects of casein and energy-yielding nutrients (acetate and glucose), and their combination, on performance and mammary metabolism. Six multiparous Holstein cows, averaging 49 kg of milk/d, were used in a 6 × 6 Latin square design with 14-d periods. Cows were fed to 100% National Research Council requirements for metabolizable protein (MP) and energy (ME) for 9 d, after which they were feed-restricted for 5 d to 85% of their individual ad libitum intake and then abomasally infused with 1 of 6 treatments. Treatments were acetate (A), glucose (G), each at 5% of ad libitum ME intake, casein (C) at 15% of ad libitum MP intake, A + C, G + C, or a saline solution (negative control). Casein infused alone increased milk protein yield numerically, with 25% recovery of the infused casein in milk protein. Glucose infused alone increased milk and milk protein yield and promoted the highest efficiency of nitrogen utilization (37%), with an efficiency of MP use for milk protein of 58%. We discovered no effect of treatment on mammary plasma flow, and the increase in milk protein yield with glucose infusion was brought about by greater mammary AA clearance rate. Infusion of casein and glucose together further increased milk protein yield in an additive fashion, and 47% of the infused casein was recovered in milk protein. Acetate infused alone had no effect on milk protein yield but increased milk fat yield numerically, suggesting that the greater amount of acetate taken up by the mammary gland was used for milk fat synthesis. Infusion of acetate and casein together yielded responses similar to those of casein alone. In conclusion, glucose has a major effect on stimulating milk protein synthesis, and the mammary gland has the ability to increase its supply of nutrients to match its synthetic capacity.

Coated sodium butyrate supplementation to a reduced nutrient diet enhanced the performance and positively impacted villus height and faecal and digesta bacterial composition in weaner pigs

A study was conducted to evaluate the effects of dietary supplementation of different levels of coated sodium butyrate (CSB) on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, faecal and intestinal coliform and lactic acid bacteria counts, gas emission and small intestinal villi length in weaning pigs. A total of 160 weaning pigs [(Landrace x Yorkshire) x Duroc, 28 days old] with an average initial body weight (BW) of 7.04 ± 1.15 kg were randomly allotted to 4 treatments (8 replicates per treatment with 5 pigs; 3 barrows and 2 gilts per replicate pen) according to their initial body weight for a 6-week trial in three phases. Treatments consisted of corn-soybean meal-based diet with slight reduction in lactose (approximately 5 %) as well as sodium content relative to National Research Council (NRC, 2012) requirement as the control (CON) and CON diet supplemented with low dose CSB (0.5 g/kg feed), medium dose CSB (1.5 g/kg feed for first 3 weeks followed by reduction to 0.75 g/kg feed thereafter) and high dose CSB (3 g/kg feed for first 3 weeks followed by reduction to1.5 g/kg feed thereafter). As a result of this study, the supplementation of increasing levels of CSB increased final BW (linear, P = 0.04, quadratic P = 0.02 effects) at day 42, linearly increased average daily gain (ADG) and gain: feed (G:F) ratio (P = 0.05, P = 0.01 respectively) during day 8−21. The ADG showed trends (P = 0.073) in increment and a significant linear increase in G:F (P < 0.05) during days 1−21 were observed with the increase in the supplemental levels of CSB. The overall ADG was linearly increased (P < 0.05). The co-efficient of apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of dry matter (DM) was higher (linear effect, P = 0.001; quadratic effect, P = 0.01) with the increase in the levels of CSB during day 21 but not during day 42. A trend in reduction of coliform counts (linear effect, P = 0.08, quadratic effect, P = 0.07) was observed during day 21. The lactic acid bacteria count was increased (linear and quadratic effects, P = 0.01) in pigs fed diet supplemented with increasing levels of CSB at day 42. The coliform counts were reduced (linear and quadratic effects, P < 0.05) in the digesta obtained from duodenum of pigs fed high; medium and low doses of CSB supplemented diet. The supplementation of low, medium and high doses of CSB showed reduction (linear effect, P < 0.001, quadratic effect, P = 0.01) in fecal H2S concentration. The inclusion of increasing dose of CSB in the diet increased (linear effect, P < 0.05) the villi length of duodenum. In addition, linear (P < 0.05) and quadratic (P < 0.05) responses in villi length were observed in jejunum and ileum from pigs fed graded levels of CSB. Taken together, low or medium levels of CSB supplementation can have a beneficial role in enhancing performance, and digestibility of weaning pigs.

Increasing the ratio of SID lysine to metabolizable energy improves pig performance during a viral challenge.

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) compromises pig performance. However, increasing standardized ileal digestible Lys per Mcal metabolizable energy (SID Lys:ME) above requirement has been shown to mitigate reduced performance seen during a porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) virus challenge. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of increasing the dietary SID Lys:ME from 100% National Research Council (NRC) requirement to 120% of the requirement in vaccinated (vac+; modified live vaccine Ingelvac PRRS) and non-vaccinated (vac−; no PRRS vaccine) grower pigs subjected to a PRRSV challenge. In addition, the dietary formulation approach to achieve the 120% ratio by increasing Lys relative to energy (HL) or diluting energy in relation to Lys (LE) was evaluated. This allowed us to test the hypothesis that pigs undergoing a health challenge would have the ability to eat to their energy needs. Within vaccine status, 195 mixed-sex pigs, vac+ (35.2 ± 0.60 kg body weight [BW]) and vac− (35.2 ± 0.65 kg BW) were randomly allotted to one of three dietary treatments (2.67, 3.23, or 3.22 g SID Lys:ME) for a 42-d PRRS virus challenge study representing 100%, 120%, and 120% of NRC requirement, respectively. Pigs were randomly allotted across two barns, each containing 24 pens with 7 to 10 pigs per pen (8 pens per diet per vaccine status). On day post-inoculation 0, both barns were inoculated with PRRSV and started on experimental diets. Within vaccine status, weekly and overall challenge period pig performance were assessed. In both vac+ (P < 0.05) and vac− (P < 0.05) pigs, the HL and LE diets increased end BW and overall average daily gain (ADG) ADG compared with pigs fed the control diet (P < 0.05). Overall, average daily feed intake (ADFI) during the challenge period was greater (P < 0.05) for pigs fed the LE diet compared with pigs fed control and HL treatments, regardless of vaccine status (20% and 17% higher ADFI than the control in vac+ and vac− pigs, respectively). The HL vac+ pigs had the greatest gain to feed (G:F) compared with the control and LE pigs (0.438 vs. 0.394 and 0.391 kg/kg, respectively; P < 0.01). Feed efficiency was not impacted (P > 0.10) by treatment in the vac− pigs. In summary, PRRSV-challenged grower pigs consumed feed to meet their energy needs as indicated by the increase in ADFI when energy was diluted in the (LE) diet, compared with control pigs. In both PRRS vac+ and vac− pigs subsequently challenged with PRRSV, regardless of formulation approach, fed 120% SID Lys:ME diets resulted in enhanced overall growth performance.

Effects of loose farrowing facilities on reproductive performance in primiparous sows.

The present study investigated the effects of loose farrowing type during gestation and after farrowing on reproductive performance and of lactating sows. A total of 22 primiparous sows (Landrace; average initial body weights [BW], 228.54 ± 12.79 kg) were allotted to one of two treatments on the basis of body weight. Sows were divided into two experimental groups, conventional farrowing crates (CON), and loosed-farrowing pens (LFP). The experiment duration was around 38 days ranging from 10 days before parturition to 28 days after parturition. Gestating sows at the age of 105 d were placed in gestational stalls (group housing). All the sows were fed a common diet according to the National Research Council requirements for lactation. Cross-fostering was performed within 1 day of parturition. From 1 day after weaning, estrus detection was performed twice-daily (0900 and 1730 h) for 10 min by boar exposure. There were significant effects of LFP housing type on the farrowing duration, and farrowing interval. At the farrowing time, none of the litter parameters including total born, stillborn, mummy, born alive piglets and total litter weight and piglet weight were affected. There were no effects of housing type on the mortality of piglets at d 1, 3, 7, 21, and 28. In conclusion, the result of this study showed that there is no performance difference between the crated or LFP sows, which indicate that the LFP housing has the potential to be used as an alternative to the crated house without any detrimental effects in reproduction performance of lactating sows.

Efficacy of Trace Mineral-Amino Acid Complexes in a Necrotic Enteritis Challenge Model.

Necrotic enteritis (NE) is a common and costly disease of poultry caused by virulent toxigenic strains of Clostridium perfringens. Although the importance of trace minerals for intestinal integrity and health is well documented, there is little information on their role in ameliorating the effects of NE. The two studies reported here examined the effects of replacing a portion of the dietary zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), and manganese (Mn) supplied as sulfates in the control diets with metal-amino acid-complexed minerals in a NE-challenge model consisting of coccidiosis and Clostridium perfringens. In a 28-day battery study, the treatments were the following: (1) no additional Zn or Mn, unchallenged (negative control); (2) no added Zn or Mn, challenged (positive control); (3) added ZnSO4 and MnSO4 at 100 ppm each, challenged; (4) additional ZnSO4 at 60 ppm, Availa-Zn at 40 ppm (Low), and MnSO4 at 100 ppm, challenged; (5) added ZnSO4 at 60 ppm, Availa-Zn at 60 ppm (high), and MnSO4 at 100 ppm, challenged; and (6) added ZnSO4 at 60 ppm, Availa-Zn at 40 ppm, MnSO4 at 60 ppm, and Availa-Mn at 40 ppm, challenged. None of the treatments ameliorated gross lesion scores, but all reduced NE-associated mortality compared with the positive control. At 28 days, the group supplemented with Availa-Zn at 40 ppm (low) had a lower body weight than challenged groups supplemented with Zn and the negative control. In a floor pen study, the five treatment groups were the following: (1) Zn, Mn, and Cu from sulfate sources at 100, 100, and 20 ppm respectively; (2) Zn, Mn, and Cu from sulfate sources at 40, 100, and 20 ppm, respectively, plus Zn from Availa-Zn at 60 ppm; (3) Zn and Mn from sulfate sources at 40 and 100 ppm, respectively, plus Zn from Availa-Zn at 60 ppm and Cu from Availa-Cu at 10 ppm; (4) Zn, Mn, and Cu from sulfate sources at 60, 60, and 20 ppm, respectively, plus Zn and Mn from Availa-Zn/Mn at 40 and 40 ppm, respectively; and (5) bacitracin methylene disalicylate at 55 g/metric ton with Zn, Mn, and Cu from sulfate sources at 100, 100, and 20 ppm, respectively (Zoetis, Inc., Kalamazoo, MI). None of the treatments reduced lesion scores. The Availa-Zn and Availa-Zn/Mn had lower mortality than the sulfate-supplemented feed, whereas Availa-Zn/Cu and bacitracin methylene disalicylate were intermediate and did not differ from the other groups. Considering both trials together, and by using NE mortality as the discriminating factor, we found that adding Zn and Mn exceeding National Research Council requirements reduced NE-associated mortality, and in the floor pen study, complexed Zn and complexed Zn plus Mn appeared to be superior to sulfates.

PSII-20 Effects of maternal nutrient restriction during gestation on bovine serum microRNA abundance

Abstract The objective of this study was to determine the effects of maternal nutrient restriction during gestation on microRNA abundance in bovine serum. Primiparous Angus-cross cows (n = 22) were fed either control (CON; to gain 1 kg/wk) or nutrient restricted (NR; 0.55 % NEm) diets based on National Research Council requirements. On d 30 of gestation, cows were blocked by body condition and randomly assigned to one of three diets: CON fed from d 30 to 190 (n = 8), or NR/C (n = 7) or C/NR (n = 7) fed either the CON or NR diet from d 30 to 110 followed by CON or NR from d 110 to 190 of gestation. Maternal blood samples were collected the day before harvest on 190 d of gestation. RNA was isolated from serum samples using the mirVANA microRNA Isolation kit and analyzed using a previously validated miRNA microarray of known Bos Taurus sequences. MicroRNA abundance were analyzed via ANOVA using procedures correcting for false discovery rate of the microarray data. At d 190 of gestation, 26 miRNAs observed differential (P &amp;lt; 0.05) abundance between treatments, in which 11 miRNAs were downregulated and 15 miRNAs were upregulated in both NR/CON and CON/NR compared to CON cows. Additionally, a set of miRNAs (bta-miR-2487_L-2R-3_1ss15CT, bta-miR-215, and bta-miR-760-5p) were differentially abundant (P &amp;lt; 0.04) between NR/CON and CON/NR cows. Top KEGG pathway enrichment analysis of target genes included pathways in cancer, cAMP signaling pathway, axon guidance, long term potentiation, and insulin signaling. In summary, maternal nutrient restriction observed altered miRNA abundance irrespective of the time at which the nutritional insult was induced.

PSI-25 Effects of restricted maternal nutrition and realimentation during gestation on the fetal progenitor cell population in semitendinosus muscle of sheep

Abstract Satellite cells are muscle stem cells that contribute to postnatal growth. The satellite cell population is established during fetal muscle development, through the retention of Pax7-expressing myogenic progenitor cells. We hypothesized that realimentation during late gestation would ameliorate the negative effect of poor maternal nutrition during mid-gestation on the fetal myogenic progenitor cell population. To test this hypothesis, 47 ewes pregnant with singletons were fed a control diet of 100% of National Research Council (NRC) requirements (CON) starting at day 25 of gestation. At day 50 of gestation, six ewes were euthanized and the remainder were randomly assigned to one of two diets: CON or 60% of CON (RES). On day 90 of gestation, a subset of ewes were euthanized (n = 7 per treatment) and fetal semitendinosus samples were collected. The remaining ewes were maintained on the current diet (CON-CON, RES-RES) or switched to the alternative diet (CON-RES, RES-CON). On day 130 of gestation, all ewes were euthanized for fetal sample collection (n = 6–7 per treatment). Fetal semitendinosus was cryosectioned and immunostained for detection of Pax7(+) cells followed by image analysis. Data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure in SAS. Semitendinosus from RES lambs had a greater number of Pax7(+) cells but similar total cell numbers to CON offspring, resulting in a greater percentage of Pax7(+) cells at d90 of gestation (CON: 13.22 ± 0.74%; RES: 16.01 ± 0.74%, P = 0.01). At day 130, there was no difference in the percentage of Pax7(+) cells between dietary treatment groups (CON-CON: 7.88 ± 0.80%; CON-RES: 6.34 ± 0.74%; RES-RES: 7.82 ± 0.74%; RES-CON: 6.87 ± 0.74%; P &amp;gt; 0.17). The percentage of Pax7(+) cells decreased from day 90 to day 130, regardless of dietary treatment (P &amp;lt; 0.0001). In summary, restricted maternal nutrition may delay progenitor cell differentiation at mid-gestation.

PSI-24 Poor maternal nutrition and gestational age affect oxidative stress in offspring muscle

Abstract Poor maternal nutrition during gestation decreases growth, increases lipid accumulation, and influences metabolism in offspring muscle. Oxidative stress is associated with lipid and protein damage and changes in metabolic function during fetal development which can persist postnatally. We hypothesized that poor maternal nutrition during gestation would increase oxidative stress in offspring muscle. To test this, 47 individually housed pregnant ewes received diets containing 60% (restricted-fed), 100% (control-fed), or 140% (over-fed) of National Research Council requirements for TDN beginning on day 30 ± 0.2 of gestation. Ewes were euthanized and offspring longissimus muscles (LM) were collected at d 90 or 135 of gestation, or within 24 h of birth (n = 8 to 14 offspring per maternal diet per gestational day). Offspring are referred to as RES, CON, and OVER, respectively. Glutathione, malondialdehyde, and protein carbonyl concentrations were determined in LM homogenates using commercial assays. Data were analyzed for effects of maternal diet, day of gestation, and their interaction using the glimmix procedure in SAS. Offspring born to over-fed ewes had reduced glutathione concentrations compared with offspring born to control-fed and restricted-fed ewes (OVER: 1.82 ± 0.30, CON: 5.58 ± 0.29, RES: 5.66 ± 0.29, M/g; P &amp;lt; 0.001). Malondialdehyde concentration increased in offspring LM from d 90 to d 135 and birth (d 90: 9.48 ± 2.2, d 135: 16.7 ± 2.1, birth: 20.9 ± 1.8 M/g; P &amp;lt; 0.001). Protein carbonylation was increased at d 90 compared with d 135 and birth (d 90: 8.05 ± 0.80, d 135: 5.68 ± 0.83, birth: 3.82 ± 0.84 g/mg; P = 0.003). Thus, gestational age influences lipid and protein oxidation. Poor maternal nutrition affects oxidative status in ovine offspring LM, which may negatively affect offspring muscle growth and development.

PSI-19 Poor maternal nutrition during gestation alters placental IGF-I, IGF-II, and IGFBP-3 mRNA expression in sheep

Abstract Insulin-like growth factors (IGF) modulate placental and fetal growth and development through nutrient sensing and endocrine signaling. We hypothesized that poor maternal nutrition during gestation would alter IGF-I, IGF binding protein (IGFBP)-2, and IGFBP-3 mRNA expression in the ovine placenta, but would not affect IGF-II mRNA expression. Pregnant ewes (n = 57) were individually fed: 60% (RES), 100% (CON), or 140% (OVER) of National Research Council requirements for TDN starting at day 30±0.2 of gestation. Ewes were euthanized and cotyledon and caruncle samples were collected at days 45, 90, and 135 of gestation. Relative mRNA expression of IGF-I, IGF-II, IGFBP-2, and IGFBP-3 was quantified using real-time PCR. Data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure in SAS. Relative IGF-I mRNA expression increased during gestation in the caruncle (d45: 0.96±0.06; d90: 1.28±0.06; d135: 1.38±0.05; P &amp;lt; 0.001). In the caruncle, IGFBP-2 expression was greater at d90 and d135 than d45 (d45: 0.67±0.20; d90: 1.90±0.20; d135: 1.65±0.18; P &amp;lt; 0.001). There was no observed effect of diet or day of gestation on IGF-II or IGFBP-3 expression in the caruncle. In the cotyledon, IGF-I expression tended to be greater in RES than OVER, which was similar to CON (CON: 0.96±0.07; RES: 1.10±0.06; OVER: 0.89±0.07; P = 0.08). Relative IGF-II mRNA expression was greater in RES cotyledons than OVER (CON: 1.30±0.35; RES: 1.96±0.31; OVER: 0.54±0.32; P = 0.01). During gestation, IGFBP-2 expression decreased in the cotyledon (d45: 1.26±0.12; d90: 0.93±0.12; d135: 0.59±0.11; P &amp;lt; 0.001). Relative IGFBP-3 mRNA expression was less in RES cotyledons than in OVER or CON (CON: 1.84±0.64; RES: 0.03±0.57; OVER: 3.62±0.66;P &amp;lt; 0.001). The changes in IGF expression in the cotyledon to a greater extent than in the caruncle in response to poor maternal diet suggest a potential mechanism by which maternal-fetal exchange may be modified to restrict placental and fetal growth.

Standardized total tract digestible phosphorus requirement of 24- to 130-kg pigs1,2.

A study was conducted to determine the standardized total tract digestible phosphorus (STTD P) requirement for 24- to 130-kg finishing pigs housed under commercial conditions. A total of 1,130 barrows and gilts (PIC 359 × 1050, Hendersonville, TN; initially 24.2 kg) were used, with 26 to 27 pigs per pen with 7 replicates per treatment. Pens of pigs were allotted to treatments in a randomized complete block design with body weight (BW) as the blocking factor. The dietary treatments were fed in 4 phases and were formulated to contain 80%, 90%, 100%, 115%, 130%, and 150% of the National Research Council (NRC) requirement estimate for finishing pigs within each phase. Weight ranges for each phase were: 27 to 49, 49 to 76, 76 to 90, and 90 to 130 kg. Treatments were achieved by increasing the amount of monocalcium phosphate at the expense of corn in the diet with no added phytase. All diets were formulated to contain a similar 1.14:1 to 1.16:1 total Ca:P ratio across treatments in all phases. Increasing STTD P resulted in a quadratic response (P < 0.05) in average daily gain (ADG), gain-to-feed ratio (G:F), and final BW. The greatest improvement was observed with STTD P at 130% of NRC for ADG and final BW and at 115% STTD P for G:F. Average daily feed intake increased linearly (linear, P < 0.05) with the inclusion of STTD P. Increasing STTD P resulted in an increase (quadratic, P < 0.05) in hot carcass weight (HCW) and carcass ADG with the greatest response observed with STTD P at 130% of NRC. There was a marginally significant response (quadratic, P < 0.10) in carcass G:F, with the greatest improvement with STTD P at 115% of NRC. Carcass yield decreased (linear, P < 0.05) with increasing STTD P, while there was a marginally significant (linear, P < 0.10) decrease in backfat and increase in fat-free lean. At the end of the study, a metacarpal was collected and analyzed for bone ash. Increasing STTD P resulted in an increase (linear, P < 0.05) in bone ash weight and percentage ash. For ADG and G:F, the quadratic model demonstrated the best fit. The maximum response in ADG and G:F was estimated at 122% and 116% of NRC STTD P, respectively. The broken-line linear model best fit the data for percentage bone ash, with a plateau achieved at 131% of the NRC STTD P. In conclusion, the estimated STTD P requirement of 24 to 130 kg ranged from 116% to 131% of the NRC publication (2012) requirement estimate.

2,4-Thiazolidinedione in Well-Fed Lactating Dairy Goats: II. Response to Intra-Mammary Infection.

In a prior experiment, treatment of goats with the putative PPARγ agonist 2,4-thiazolidinedione (2,4-TZD) ameliorated the response to intramammary infection without evidence of PPARγ activation. The lack of PPARγ activation was possibly due to deficiency of vitamin A and/or a poor body condition of the animals. Therefore, the present study hypothesized that activation of PPARγ by 2,4-TZD in goats supplemented with adequate amounts of vitamin A can improve the response to sub-clinical mastitis. Lactating goats receiving a diet that met National Research Council requirements, including vitamin A, were injected with 8 mg/kg BW of 2,4-TZD (n = 6) or saline (n = 6; control (CTR)) daily. Two weeks into treatment, all goats received Streptococcus uberis (IMI) in the right mammary gland. Blood biomarkers of metabolism, inflammation, and oxidative status plus leukocytes phagocytosis were measured. Mammary epithelial cells (MEC) and macrophages were isolated from milk and liver tissue collected for gene expression analysis. Milk fat was maintained by treatment with 2,4-TZD, but decreased in CTR, after IMI. Haptoglobin was increased after IMI only in 2,4-TZD without any effect on negative acute phase proteins, indicating an improved liver function. 2,4-TZD vs. CTR had a greater amount of globulin. The expression of inflammation-related genes was increased by IMI in both macrophages and MEC. Except for decreasing expression of SCD1 in MEC, 2,4-TZD did not affect the expression of measured genes. Results confirmed the successful induction of sub-clinical mastitis but did not confirm the positive effect of 2,4-TZD on the response to IMI in well-fed goats.

Flock differences in the impact of maternal dietary restriction on offspring growth and glucose tolerance in female offspring

Variable impacts of in-utero programming stimuli on postnatal offspring development suggest that genotype may play a role in this response. In this study, ewes from two flocks of similar breeding but adapted for 6–8 generations to one of two markedly different production environments were utilized (Baggs ewes - nomadic lifestyle and limited nutrition; UW ewes - sedentary lifestyle and adequate nutrition). Ewes from each flock were fed 50% (nutrient restricted) or 100% (control) National Research Council (NRC) requirements between day 28 and 78 of gestation; some ewes in each dietary group were then necropsied. Remaining ewes were fed 100% NRC requirements from day 79 to term. Weights of singleton female fetuses were reduced (P < 0.05) in nutrient restricted UW ewes compared to control UW ewes on day 78. Two month old ewe lambs from nutrient restricted UW ewes had greater (P < 0.05) baseline glucose concentrations, and exhibited greater (P < 0.05) glucose and insulin concentrations to an intravenous glucose bolus than lambs from control UW ewes. From 4 to 12 months of age, ewe lambs from nutrient restricted UW ewes were heavier (P < 0.05) than lambs from control UW ewes. In contrast, no differences in fetal weight, baseline glucose, glucose and insulin concentration to an intravenous glucose bolus, or body weight were observed for nutrient restricted and control Baggs ewes. These data suggest that a multigenerational adaptation of ewes to different production systems impacts their ability to protect their fetus against a bout of early to mid-gestational nutrient restriction.

Trace mineral source influences ruminal distribution of copper and zinc and their binding strength to ruminal digesta1,2,3.

Eight crossbred steers (BW 719.0 ± 65.0 kg) with ruminal and duodenal cannulae were used to examine the effect of trace mineral (TM) source on digestibility; ruminal and duodenal solubility of Cu, Zn, and Mn; and in vitro release of Cu, Zn, and Mn from the solid fraction of ruminal digesta. Experiment 1 determined the effect of TM source on DM and NDF digestibility in steers fed a corn silage and steam-flaked corn-based diet. Treatments consisted of 10 mg Cu, 20 mg Mn, and 30 mg Zn/kg DM from either sulfate TM (STM) or hydroxy TM (HTM) sources. Following a 14-d adaptation period, total fecal output was collected for 5 d. Dry matter digestibility was not affected by treatment, but NDF digestibility tended (P < 0.09) to be greater in HTM vs. STM supplemented steers. In Exp. 2, steers were fed a diet without supplemental Cu, Zn, or Mn for 19 d. Steers were then administrated a pulse dose of STM or HTM (2× the National Research Council requirements for Cu, Mn, and Zn) via the rumen fistula. Ruminal and duodenal samples were obtained at 2-h intervals starting at -4 and ending at 24 h relative to dosing. Ruminal soluble Cu and Zn concentrations were affected by treatment, time, and treatment × time. Soluble concentrations and percent soluble Cu and Zn in ruminal digesta increased (P < 0.05) above 0-h values for 10 h following dosing with STM, but not HTM. Concentrations of Cu and Zn in ruminal solid digesta were also affected by treatment, time, and treatment × time. Steers dosed with STM had greater (P < 0.05) solid digesta Cu concentrations at 2 and 4 h but lesser (P < 0.05) concentrations from 6 to 20 h post-dosing than those receiving HTM. Ruminal solid digesta Zn concentrations were greater (P < 0.05) in HTM vs. STM-dosed steers from 6 through 24 h post-dosing. Distribution of Mn in ruminal digesta was affected by TM source, but to a lesser extent than Zn and Cu. Duodenal soluble TM concentrations were variable and not affected by treatment. Binding strength of TM to ruminal solid digesta was estimated at 0, 6, and 12 h post-dosing using dialysis against chelating agents. The percentage of Cu and Zn released from ruminal solid digesta by dialysis against Tris-EDTA was greater (P < 0.05) at 12 h post-dosing from steers receiving HTM vs. STM. Results indicate that Cu and Zn from HTM have low solubility in the rumen and appear to be less tightly bound to ruminal solid digesta than Cu and Zn from STM.

Effects of trace mineral amount and source on aspects of oxidative metabolism and responses to intramammary lipopolysaccharide challenge in midlactation dairy cows

Trace minerals have important roles in immune function and oxidative metabolism; however, little is known about the relationships between supplementation level and source with outcomes in dairy cattle. Multiparous Holstein cows (n=48) beginning at 60 to 140 days in milk were utilized to determine the effects of trace mineral amount and source on aspects of oxidative metabolism and responses to intramammary lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge. Cows were fed a basal diet meeting National Research Council (NRC) requirements except for no added zinc (Zn), copper (Cu) or manganese (Mn). After a 4-week preliminary period, cows were assigned to one of four topdress treatments in a randomized complete block design with a 2×2 factorial arrangement of treatments: (1) NRC inorganic (NRC levels using inorganic (sulfate-based) trace mineral supplements only); (2) NRC organic (NRC levels using organic trace mineral supplements (metals chelated to 2-hydroxy-4-(methythio)-butanoic acid); (3) commercial inorganic (approximately 2×NRC levels using inorganic trace mineral supplements only; and (4) commercial organic (commercial levels using organic trace mineral supplements only). Cows were fed the respective mineral treatments for 6 weeks. Treatment effects were level, source and their interaction. Activities of super oxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase in erythrocyte lysate and concentrations of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) in plasma were measured as indices of oxidative metabolism. Effects of treatment on those indices were not significant when evaluated across the entire experimental period. Plasma immunoglobulin G level was higher in cows supplemented with organic trace minerals over the entire treatment period; responses assessed as differences of before and after Escherichia coli J5 bacterin vaccination at the end of week 2 of treatment period were not significant. Cows were administered an intramammary LPS challenge during week 5; during week 6 cows fed commercial levels of Zn, Cu and Mn tended to have higher plasma TAC and cows fed organic sources had decreased plasma TBARS. After the LPS challenge, the extent and pattern of response of plasma cortisol concentrations and clinical indices (rectal temperature and heart rate) were not affected by trace mineral level and source. Productive performance including dry matter intake and milk yield and composition were not affected by treatment. Overall, results suggest that the varying level and source of dietary trace minerals do not have significant short-term effects on oxidative metabolism indices and clinical responses to intramammary LPS challenge in midlactation cows.

Petz Munchez – Sunflower Shell Waste-Based Animal Feed Pellet

Abstract The purpose of this paper is to introduce Petz Munchez – animal feed pellet that utilized sunflower shell waste (PI2019002187) as fibre source in their formulation, and specifically tailor for hamster that support their daily function and performance. Prior to the fruition of this animal feed product, a thorough and in-depth initial study had been performed on sunflower shell waste as one of the main raw material and its possible use as fibre source in pellet formulation. Petz Munchez had been produced in GMP Food laboratory according to the American National Research council requirement for animal feed production as well as undergone testing based on AOAC analytical method for animal feed that listed by FDA. This product contains fibre and protein content that required by hamster, 14.5% and 16.8% respectively. Price comparison with existing available product also discover that Petz Munchez introductory price is economical yet provide almost similar benefit. Survey that had been conducted on the Petz Munchez product trial shown that half of the participants rated it as good value on money as well as high quality. The acceptance rate of this product by pet can also be achieve through gradual transition process which can affect re-purchasing and building dynamic relationship between the brand and customer. Overall, Petz Munchez is an economic hamster feed with all required benefit. It also has open possible avenue of future pet product that utilized sunflower shell waste as fibre source in their formulation.

Dietary Supplementation with Lysine and Threonine Modulates the Performance and Plasma Metabolites of Broiler Chicken.

Here, we investigated whether the optimal threonine (Thr) to lysine (Lys) ratio in high Lys diet improves the growth performance of modern broiler chickens at finisher period and determined the possible mechanism underlying improvement in the growth performance of chickens fed with high Lys or Lys + Thr diet using metabolome analyses. Eighteen 21-day-old chickens housed in individual cages were randomly divided into three groups of six chickens fed with different diets as follows: control diet, high Lys diet (150% Lys content of National Research Council requirement), and high Lys + Thr diet (0.68 of Thr/Lys in high Lys diet). Body weight gain (BWG) increased in chickens receiving high Lys diet as compared with those fed with the control diet (P<0.05); no significant difference was observed in BWG of chickens from high Lys + Thr and high Lys groups. Feed conversion ratio (FCR) was lower in chickens fed with high Lys or high Lys + Thr diet than in those on the control diet. Serotonin concentration increased in the plasma of chickens fed with high Lys diet as compared to those fed with other diets. A negative correlation was observed between plasma serotonin concentration and FCR. These results provide the first evidence on the use of high Lys in broiler diets to reduce FCR during finisher period, which may be associated with change in plasma serotonin concentration. These findings suggest that high Lys content in finisher diet, but not high Thr + Lys diet, may affect the peripheral serotonergic metabolism and improve FCR. Thus, plasma serotonin may serve as a biomarker of FCR in broilers.

Increased lysine: metabolizable energy ratio improves grower pig performance during a porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus challenge.

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) reduces grower pig performance. The amino acid (AA) requirements and lysine:metabolizable energy ratio (Lys:ME) of health-challenged pigs for optimum performance are poorly understood. Two experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of increasing standardized ileal digestible (SID) Lys:ME (g SID Lys per Mcal ME) on growth performance during a PRRSV challenge. In Exp. 1, a total of 379 barrows (51.3 ± 0.3 kg body weight [BW]) were allotted to one of six diets (1.87 to 3.41 Lys:ME) for a 35-d growth study. In Exp. 2, a total of 389 barrows (29.2 ± 0.23 kg BW) were allotted to one of six diets (2.39 to 3.91 Lys:ME) for a 49-d growth study. These isocaloric diets represented 80% to 130% of National Research Council (NRC) SID Lys requirement. For each experiment, pigs were randomly allotted across two barns of 24 pens each with seven to nine pigs per pen (four pens per diet per health status). On day 0, one barn was inoculated with live PRRSV, one barn sham inoculated (control), and all pigs were started on experimental diets. Pen growth performance and feed intake were recorded weekly and gain-to-feed ratio (G:F) was calculated. Breakpoint analysis was used to determine the Lys:ME that maximized average daily gain (ADG) and G:F over the 35 or 49-d test periods for Exp. 1 and 2, respectively. In Exp. 1, increasing Lys:ME increased ADG (quadratic P = 0.01) and G:F (linear and quadratic P = 0.04) in control pigs over 35 d. In PRRSV-infected pigs, ADG and G:F increased linearly with increasing Lys:ME (P < 0.01). The Lys:ME for optimum ADG and G:F during PRRSV challenge was 2.83 and 3.17, respectively, compared to 2.24 and 2.83, respectively, in control pigs using a one-slope broken-line model. In Exp. 2, pigs in the control barn became naturally infected after 21 days post inoculation. Before infection, ADG and G:F increased with increasing Lys:ME in control and PRRSV-infected pigs (linear and quadratic P < 0.05), and optimum ADG and G:F were achieved at 3.02 and 2.92 Lys:ME, respectively, in PRRSV-infected pigs compared to 2.82 and 3.22 Lys:ME, respectively, in control pigs. Over the 49-d period, increasing Lys:ME improved ADG (P < 0.01, linear and quadratic) and G:F (linear P < 0.01) in naturally infected pigs. The response was similar in experimental infection for ADG (P < 0.01, linear and quadratic) and G:F (linear P = 0.01). The optimum ratio for ADG (2.86 vs. 3.12 Lys:ME) and G:F (3.18 vs. 3.08 Lys:ME) were similar between natural and experimental infection. In summary, increasing Lys:ME by 10% to 20% above NRC requirements improved performance and feed efficiency during an experimental and natural PRRSV challenge.

Dietary rumen-protected arginine and N-carbamylglutamate supplementation enhances fetal growth in underfed ewes.

The present study was conducted with an ovine intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) model to test the hypothesis that dietary rumen-protected l-arginine (RP-Arg) or N-carbamylglutamate (NCG) supplementation in underfed ewes is effective in enhancing fetal growth. Between Days 35 and 110 of pregnancy, 32 multiparous ewes carrying two fetuses were randomly assigned to one of four groups: a control (CG) group (n=8; 100% National Research Council (NRC) requirements for pregnant sheep), a nutrient-restricted (RG) group (n=8; fed 50% NRC requirements, and two treatment (ARG and NCG) groups (n=8 in each group; fed 50% NRC requirements supplemented with 20gday-1 RP-Arg or 5gday-1 NCG. All ewes were killed on Day 110 of pregnancy to determine fetal weight and fetal organ weights, and metabolites and hormones in fetal plasma, amino acid concentrations in the fetal liver and longissimus dorsi muscle, and expression of mRNAs in the somatotropic axis. Maternal and fetal bodyweight and the weight of most fetal organs expressed as a percentage of bodyweight increased in response to ARG and NCG compared with values for fetuses from RG ewes. Fetal plasma concentrations of insulin, insulin-like growth factor 1, total amino acids, lactate, thyroxine, and the thyroxine/tri-iodothyronine ratio were lower in fetuses from RG ewes compared with the other treatment groups, but concentrations of growth hormone, non-esterified fatty acids, and total cholesterol were greater in fetuses from RG ewes. Maternal RP-Arg or NCG supplementation increased concentrations of amino acids in fetal tissues and expression of mRNAs for somatotropic axis proteins in fetuses from RG ewes. These findings suggest that maternal RP-Arg and NCG supplementation of underfed ewes decreases fetal IUGR by improving metabolic homeostasis of fetal endocrinology, increasing the availability of amino acids in the fetal liver and longissimus dorsi muscle and affecting the expression of somatotropic axis genes.