Musical Notation Research Articles

EVALUATION OF AN INDUCTIVE STRATEGY OF TEACHING MUSIC AND PROGRAMMING TO PRIMARY SCHOOL STUDENTS

The traditional teaching strategies have deductive characteristics, while the modern ones have inductive characteristics. But inductive teaching strategies are not always appreciated or recommended in any educational context. Therefore, the present study aimed to design an instructional setting according to the principles of an inductive strategy for teaching content that integrates music with computer programming, and to monitor the effects of teaching, on a long term, on three consecutive generations of fourth-grade students, measuring learning acquisitions through a Learning Achievement Test. In this framework, the students assimilated notions of music notation and formed concepts specific to music education starting from practical exercise, generating sounds electronically using programming languages and the Sonic Pi application, improvising melodies to learn through discovery the variability of sound parameters and reproducing songs from the children's universe, starting from their musical sheets and solving problems of fitting the qualities of sounds into a series of musical notation elements, based on the audio feedback obtained. The analysis of the effects of teaching and the concepts formed in students in the sphere of music education was carried out by measuring the relative state of learning acquisition at the end of the digital instruction based on an inductive teaching strategy, with reference to a fixed criterion: the 25th percentile. Thus, it was found that the percentage of results exceeding the 25th percentile, i.e. 75% of the sample of participants, produced variability at the upper limit of the scoring system. The context of the development of certain transferable computational thinking skills supported learning objectives in the sphere of programming and music composing, and the good results of the students show a concrete performance, and this performance, if considered in proportion to the effort put in, which was a play, a play of music making, i.e. a low effort, can be translated into a good performance and this can be attributed to the inductive teaching strategy.

From the Hispanic rite to the Franco-Roman rite: musical notation and liturgical change

ABSTRACT London British Library Additional Manuscripts 30847, 30848, and 30850, a series of Franco-Roman rite codices transmitting Gregorian chant and associated with the Abbey of Santo Domingo de Silos, are regarded as witnesses of the transition from the Hispanic rite to the Franco-Roman rite. This belief is largely owed to their musical notation, which previous works label as “Visigothic” or “Mozarabic,” that is, using adjectives also employed to describe the Hispanic rite's most common variety of notation, called “vertical” notation in the most recent scholarship. The use of these adjectives suggests a gradual transition from one liturgy to the other, because it implies the survival of an important Hispanic rite element, its musical notation, purportedly preserved by Hispanic rite scribes after this rite's official suppression in 1080. This article presents the results of the first detailed study of the notation in these three Franco-Roman rite manuscripts, and of its relationship with the Hispanic rite's vertical notation, considering also other musical notations employed in the Iberian Peninsula around the end of the eleventh century. These results reveal that the affiliation between these notations is not as straightforward as previously thought. I propose a new way of understanding these notations and discuss questions that their complicated relationship raises about their context of production.

Searching for islands of happiness – LBK settlement at Cząstków Polski site XII, Czosnów Commune in Mazovia, Central Poland

Abstract Loose finds associated with the LBK have long been recovered during surveys in the Warsaw Basin, Mazovia. Most often, they have been interpreted as remnants of short stays of LBK communities migrating northwards along the Vistula River, or as stopping points of expeditions southwards for flint. Rescue excavations at Cząstków Polski site XII, Czosnów commune, although carried out on a small scale, provide the first possibility of a comprehensive multiproxy analysis to test this hypothesis and determine the nature of the settlement. By integrating the results of the analysis of natural conditions (soils, hydrography), excavated features, and artefacts: pottery (technology, stylistics, petrography), flint (raw materials, typology, use-wear) and coarse-grained stone (raw materials, typology, use-wear), we show that the site actually represents the remains of a small, shortly used settlement that is part of a small contemporaneous settlement micro-region occupied during the beginnings of the middle LBK (early Music Note phase). This micro-region is an example of a peripheral, short-lived and thus unsuccessful colonisation of early farming communities associated with the LBK.

Yoruba Indigenous Music as Alternative Tool for Child Education

Since music is a component of culture, it is essential to education. The importance of Yoruba traditional music in their education cannot be overstated, since the goal of education is to develop a child who is capable of being a productive member of society and who complies with social norms and customs. Given that traditional beliefs, rituals, norms, and social structures are often the foundation of musical notions and practices, the effects of Yoruba music on children become increasingly plausible. This cultural phenomenon research is necessary because of the connections between music, culture, and education. This study looks at how a Yoruba child's education was impacted by the shape, lyrics, and performing techniques of indigenous music. It will also provide a fitting explanation of the background of Yoruba music. A few chosen pieces of indigenous music were examined to establish the use of indigenous music as alternative tool historical, arithmetic, moral and health education. This study concludes that the inherent worth of indigenous music is a useful and alternative tool for teaching Yoruba children, especially in early childhood education. The study suggests that Yoruba people should value the singing of Indigenous music in their homes, community and that indigenous music should be incorporated into the curriculum and taught in elementary, secondary, and higher institutions.

Strategi Pelestarian Budaya Melalui Pembakuan Notasi Musik Kelintang Jolo di Muaro Jambi

This research aims to identify cultural preservation strategies through the standardization of Kelintang Jolo music notation in Muaro Jambi. The process skills used are ethnophysics-based qualitative research. This research uses a method that combines a qualitative approach with ethnographic and physics studies. The data collection techniques used were site survey, research instrument development, observation and documentation, interviews, data analysis and conclusion drawing, and evaluation. The results of this study indicate that Kelintang Jolo notation has an important role in preserving the traditional culture of Muaro Jambi which consists of (1) History of Kelintang Jolo. (2) The process of making Kelintang Jolo. (3) The concept of Ethnophysics in Kelintang Jolo. (4) Kelintang Jolo instrument. (5) Standardization of Music Notation. The implication of the research is expected support from various parties to maintain the sustainability of Kelintang Jolo music notation as a valuable cultural heritage. It is hoped that the results of this study can contribute to cultural preservation efforts through the standardization of traditional music notation in Indonesia.

Singing Training According to Notation at the Immanuel Kotaraja Evangelical Camp Congregation

overcome the congregation's limitations in reading musical notation, which often hinders the harmony and beauty of music in worship. This training aims to improve the ability of congregations, worship leaders and musicians to understand and apply musical notation correctly. The methods used include demonstrations and questions and answers, which help the congregation be more active in absorbing the theory and practice of ecclesiastical music. As a result, this training has had a significant positive impact on the quality of music services. The congregation is not only more synchronized in singing praise songs, but also better able to appreciate the spiritual meaning of each song sung. In addition, the ability to read notation opens up opportunities for the congregation to explore more creative and varied arrangements, enriching the worship atmosphere musically and spiritually. In conclusion, this training contributed to improving the quality of church music, strengthening congregational togetherness, and deepening their spiritual experience in worship. This initiative also supports higher education institutions' efforts to implement Tri Dharma, especially in the field of community service.

Udmurdi hällilaul: veel kord esmaallika probleemist

Udmurt lullabies are divided into two different musical and stylistic groups. The first one, similar to many Finno-Ugric peoples, includes improvised songs - the most archaic layer of song folklore. Improvised Udmurt lullabies are various rhythmic and melodic intonations that are meant to soothe or put the child to sleep. However, the singers I met during fieldwork often sang another lullaby based on the verse of G.E. Vereshchagin, “Chagyr, chagyr dydyke...” (Blue, blue pigeon…). All the variants of this lullaby form the second group. That lullaby has been recorded throughout Udmurtia, almost supplanting local improvised lullabies. Musical analysis of the lullaby “Chagyr, chagyr dydyke...” has shown that, unlike improvised lullabies, this tune belongs to a late music style. The lyrics of the lullaby attracted the attention of philologists and literary critics, who tried to clarify the authorship of the verse. The verse “Chagyr, chagyr dydyke...” was published by the Udmurt writer and ethnographer Vereshchagin in 1889. The heated discussion around the problem of Vereshchagin’s authorship, which unfolded later on, lasted for several decades. Udmurt folklorist T. G. Vladykina put an end to the dispute, concluding that the author of the lullaby was Vereshchagin. As proof of his authorship, the researcher presented several convincing arguments, including the peculiarities of the functioning of this tune in the tradition (“memorized song”) and the strophic form with cross-rhyme, not typical of Udmurt ritual song folklore. Vereshchagin’s verses spread among people thanks to the Udmurt scholar, poet, and musician Kusebai Gerd. Gerd published this verse several times under the authorship of Vereshchagin, adding the refrain “Iz, iz, nunye, zarni bugore!” (Sleep, sleep, my child, golden ball!) after each stanza and replacing some words. In this version, the lullaby spread throughout Udmurtia. While in philological disputes the points of view of different parties are known, in ethnomusicology the problem of music authorship has not even been raised yet. The music was considered folk or attributed to Vereshchagin. The first musical notation of the lullaby with Vereshchagin’s lyrics was published in 1925, in a collection of Udmurt songs by Mikhail Romanov, who was a teacher at the Glazov Pedagogical Technical School. Apparently, he recorded it from his students, then reworked it for a four-voice choir. The lullaby was sung all over Udmurtia at that time. It was also sung by Gerd, who had a good voice and musical education. It can be assumed that Kusebai Gerd composed the melody to the verse of Vereshchagin. The fate of the verse “Chagyr, chagyr dydyke...” turned out to be fortunate. Vereshchagin nominated it as a lullaby song heard from an Udmurt woman “laying her child down”. And it really turned into a folk song, acquired its own melody, becoming known in every Udmurt village. Thus, in the Udmurt folklore genre system the author’s work acquired the legal status as an autonomous folklore unit, practically supplanting lullaby improvisations.

Composer’s interpretation of Guo Wenjing of Chinese traditional opera «Si Fan»

Relevance of the study. Chinese traditional opera is one of the important treasures of the world musical culture. Now there are about 360 regional varieties of this opera in China, which indicates the active continuation of its public life. At the current stage, Chinese traditional musical art became the focus of attention of many Chinese composers-representatives of “The New Wave”. In their creativity, there is a revival of traditional Chinese music and, at the same time, saturation of traditional genres of modern methods of compositional writing. The subject of the consideration in the article is the composer’s interpretation of Chinese traditional opera “Si Fan”, which was made by Guo Wenjing in 2015. Creating arrangement, the composer aims to enrich the thesaurus of Western musician and listener with intonations of Sichuan traditional opera. Its access to the international level actualizes the research of peculiarities of modern interpretive versions of opera compositions of Sichuan traditional theatre. The main objective of the study is to reveal the specifics of transformation of Sichuan traditional opera “Si Fan” in the composer's interpretation of Guo Wenjing. Methodology. In the research of historical origin of the original source of the studied opera, the role of Sichuan traditional opera in modern musical life, the historical method of analysis is applied. In order to identify the specifics of the transformation of an opera of traditional origin in the modern composer's interpretation of Guo Wenjing, the comparative method of analysis was used. Results and conclusions. The historical origin of the original source of the studied opera is traced. The specifics of changes in the semantic load in operas of the traditional theater are revealed in a historical section, using the example of the opera “Si Fan”. The importance of mutual exchange of musical experience between European and Chinese cultures as the important means of actualizing Chinese traditional theater for modern society is highlighted. The specifics of the transformation of the Sichuan traditional opera “Si Fan” in the composer's interpretive version by Guo Wenjing have been researched. It can be traced in the orientation to the maximum preservation of the natural, authentic sound of gaoqiang chants, which would at the same time become accessible to the modern foreign audience. For this purpose, the following means are used: 1. distinct genre features of Chinese traditional theater are preserved; 2. the acoustic sound of instrumentation is not opposed, but acts as a supplement to the sound standard of traditional Chinese music; 3. the ensemble interaction of the traditional composition of gaoqiang performers is not disrupted with the introduction of an academic instrumental ensemble; 4. five-line and hieroglyphic notation is combined. In Guo Wenjing's arrangement, we observe the genre expansion of traditional opera, according to which the composer leaves the basis of the traditional Sichuan opera, but enriches its expressive possibilities, bringing it closer to the perception of the European listener. According to the results of the analyses of the performance version of the opera “Si Fan” of 2015, the peculiarities of live communication of the performers are summarized, in which the central and leading role of the soloist is emphasized. A conclusion is made regarding the stabilizing influence of musical notation, the presence of an auxiliary instrumental ensemble and a conductor on the architectural construction of the opera. The search of new resources to diversify the musical and expressive language of the traditional heritage of Chinese culture is characteristic of the work of many modern composers, which certainly provides prospects for further analytical investigations and awaits further scientific coverage.

Using Musical Notes and Artificial Intelligence Together as a Tool in Spatial Design

It is possible to state that it is an important issue to follow different methods or current issues in revealing spatial design approaches. Thus, it will be possible to create spaces with unique and remarkable qualities. Music can be a tool that can be used or utilized in spatial design processes. The aim of this study is to reveal the results of using musical notes and artificial intelligence together in determining suggestions and alternatives based on spatial design. The material of the study consists of national and international literature on the subject, a song sample selected specifically for the subject, AutoCAD, 3ds Max, Corona Renderer programs and PromeAI artificial intelligence program. In this context, three-dimensional visuals were created with computer and artificial intelligence programs using the notes and sound waves of the selected song and alternatives based on these visuals were put forward. As a result, it is possible to state that the use of musical notes together with computer and artificial intelligence programs will be effective for designers to reveal faster, remarkable and innovative spatial design approaches.

Image-based Efficient Music Note Detection by Advanced Lightweighted YOLO

In the realm of music note detection, deep learning models have demonstrated exceptional potential, enabling a wide range of applications, including automated music transcription and real-time music analysis. Despite their effectiveness, the resource-intensive nature of these models often renders them impractical for deployment in resource-limited environments. To tackle this issue, this research focuses on adapting an existing deep learning model, You Only Look Once (YOLO), to explore lightweight alternatives specifically tailored for music note detection. This work assessed the performance of the adapted model using a comprehensive dataset that includes 2,136 meticulously labeled music sheet images. Preliminary results suggest that the streamlined version of the model not only matches the accuracy of its predecessor but also boasts a substantially lower parameter count and reduced Floating Point Operations (FLOPs). These enhancements make the model an ideal candidate for music note detection across a broader spectrum of devices, including those with limited computational capabilities. This advancement opens up new possibilities for real-time music analysis and transcription in various settings, such as mobile devices and low-power embedded systems.

Graveyard Symphony; A Study Investigating the Effectiveness of a Prototype Music Game

Learning to play a musical instrument, particularly the keyboard, can be challenging for adults who are beginners or have previously given up due to a lack of foundational skills and engaging practice methods. To address this issue, we have developed prototype games aimed at honing specific musical skills. Through several pilot studies, it became evident that assessing the effectiveness of video game experiences in skill acquisition compared to traditional practice methods was essential. Therefore, we hypothesised that video games could encourage sustained practice and reduce dropout rates among beginners. Consequently, our focus shifted to creating games centred on sheet music reading, specifically matching musical staff positions to keyboard keys. This paper presents a study aimed at evaluating the effectiveness of a specific prototype game in enhancing musical notation reading skills. Additionally, we assessed the game’s engagement, educational value and usability in comparison to a conventional practice tool. The results indicated that the game was equally or potentially more effective than the practice tool in improving the targeted skill. Furthermore, participants perceived the practice game as having greater educational value, although it did not surpass the practice tool in terms of engagement. Further discussion is provided to elucidate the reasons behind this finding.

Using Music Features for Managing Revisions and Variants of Musical Scores

Abstract Music engravers nowadays use music notation software to create scores for musical works. As is common in any creative process, many different versions of digital artifacts are created—e.g., to manage editions of the same musical work, editorial markups, or the history and genesis of compositions. In the field of software engineering, researchers have proposed the use of features, i.e., user-visible aspects of systems, to manage both revisions and variants of source code and other software artifacts. Feature-based version control systems establish and maintain feature-to-code mappings defining which parts of the artifacts realize particular features, e.g., which code implements a specific function. These mappings can then be used to generate new variants based on the artifacts by selecting the desired features. Our article provides an in-depth study on feature-based version control for music notation. Our automated approach adopts the domain-specific language (DSL) LilyPond and the feature-oriented version control system ECCO. Existing studies show that features in musical scores are often fine-grained and affect only small parts of an artifact, are scattered across noncontiguous locations in the artifact, and highly interact with each other. Such properties have strong implications for the usefulness of versioning tools. Our experiment investigates two factors related to the correctness of output from feature-based version control systems when used for symbolic music notation. We demonstrate the incremental refinement of feature-to-artifact mappings when committing DSL code. We further study the impact of the order of feature interactions on the correctness of the automatically generated music artifacts. We find that a larger feature interaction threshold produces only marginally more correct results, but fixing and recommitting incorrect variants has a more powerful effect. Our results further show that considering DSL specifics is important for versioning fine-grained and scattered features.

Mixed reality strategies for piano education

Head-mounted mixed reality interfaces, in which a user perceives a seamless blend of real, virtual or remote content, have great potential in a wide range of educational contexts. In this paper, we explore the use of mixed reality (MR) in piano education. We begin with a review of previous examples of virtual and mixed reality for piano teaching and learning, identifying four major categories of functionality: remote teaching, learning to read musical notation, providing alternative notation systems to Western musical notation, and enhancing users’ understanding and experience of music. Following this review, we present an application designed to demonstrate the use of MR for facilitating remote student-teacher piano lessons. Additionally, hand-tracking enables real-time, bi-directional visualization of both the student’s and teacher’s hand movements while playing, which is a crucial communication channel in piano instruction. We also present the Piano Theory Hub, an interactive area for independent learning and practice designed to compliment remote instructions. The Piano Theory Hub uses MR to provide spatial in situ explanations and exercises on notes, intervals, scales, and chords. User studies were conducted to evaluate both remote and solo aspects of the application. The first study with 10 participants revealed a strong sense of immersion and co-presence with the teacher during remote lessons. Trials also revealed that, in addition to virtual hands, visual highlighting of key-presses was found to improve visualisation of the remote users’ play. The second study, with 15 participants found the Piano Theory Hub to be helpful for beginners and some intermediate players, with feedback suggesting improvements in user experience and highlighting the limitations of replacing traditional piano teachers. Our experiments demonstrate that MR can be successfully employed for the following strategies for piano education: hand interaction coaching, flexible virtual hand and piano visibility, augmented feedback including key highlighting, gamified learning elements, and flexible teacher positioning options. Overall, the findings suggest that mixed reality holds promise as an effective tool for remote piano learning and music education, offering immersive and engaging learning experiences.

Fostering a Public Appreciation of Film Music in the U.S.A.

The American periodical Film Music Notes spurred a critical consideration of film music and of building public appreciation of the arts during its run from 1941 to 1958. This history of its first decade starts with the connections and efforts of a group of Hollywood women on behalf of the National Federation of Music Clubs, to their founding of the National Film Music Council, to the final stage in editor turnover from the founding editors. It contributes to histories of professionalization of artistic and cultural study through its analysis of how the editors experimented with structuring content in a way to encourage the public to appreciate film music. This was influenced by changing relations between Film Music Notes and Hollywood studios, the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America, and educational organizations. This context explains how prominent composers and critics came to contribute to the periodical and the larger debates that were shaping their writings.

MICHAIL GOLEMINOV’S SOUNDSCAPES – A STEP AHEAD

The article portrays one of Bulgaria’s leading composers of the past few decades, who has received international recognition, particularly in the field of electroacoustic music. Michail Goleminov (1956-2022) composed scores for chamber and symphony orchestras. He was a multi-media artist and author of various programming applications, notation games, and generative software. He specialized in musical notation with long years of professional experience as an editor at the Vienna-based Doblinger Publishers and an active pianist and performer of free improvisations. Goleminov completed his musical education in Bulgaria but left for Austria at the age of 28, where he resided, studied, and worked for 16 years. In 2000/2001, he returned to Bulgaria and created Orange Factory Psychoacoustic Arts, an experimental studio for contemporary art, along with pianist Angela Tosheva. They have organized concerts, festivals, master classes, and competitions for musical compositions, published books, and released audio and video productions and multi-media applications at various levels. The duo was also actively engaged in educational activities. Together they carried out more than 250 projects over the years 2001-2022.

THE ROLE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF MODERN TECHNOLOGY FOR THE FUTURE OF MUSIC EDUCATION

This study presents research on prospective primary school teachers engaged in music instruction in primary school settings. The research focuses on the development of skills in using and adapting educational content through modern technology. Specifically, it examines the competencies required to utilize an application for composing musical scores using elements of musical notation, a topic typically studied in grades one to four.

Research on the Notation of Folk Urtiin Duu

This paper deeply explores the notation of Mongolian folk Urtiin Duu, an intangible cultural heritage, and focuses on how to scientifically and rationally record their unique artistic characteristics. The study points out that the simplified notation has the advantages of being easy to learn and flexible in key changes, and is the preferred choice for notating folk Urtiin Duu. In view of the difficulty in recording the free rhythm of folk Urtiin Duu, a method of grouping a group of sound forms based on the combination of the internal rhythmic rhythm and speed changes is proposed to solve the problem of recording non-equal rhythms. For the notation of the core techniques of the decorative elements of folk Urtiin Duu, such as Tashilaga and Nogula, the concept of the music theory symbol system is changed to accurately express them in order to protect the artistic essence of folk Urtiin Duu. In addition, the importance of the backing words in the singing of folk Urtiin Duu is emphasized, and it is advocated to record the backing words in a comprehensive manner to protect the traditional charm of folk Urtiin Duu. This paper comprehensively considers the selection of musical notation, the processing of rhythm, the application of decorative symbols and the standardized recording of filler words, aiming to provide a more scientific and reasonable musical notation strategy for the educational inheritance of folk Urtiin Duu, and promote the inheritance, protection and development of this precious cultural heritage.

Green Reading: Books and the Outdoors in the Early Modern Ottoman World

Abstract Before silent and private reading in enclosed spaces became paramount with an overwhelming preference for libraries or private rooms, oral and social reading was far more common, and it took place out-of-doors to a considerable degree. Visual depictions of poets and scholars, and of the reading public in general in the early modern Ottoman world include many representations of people engaged in “green reading,” namely, reading outdoors in open air or in semi-outdoors in close touch with nature. Several developments before and after the turn of the eighteenth century indicate the emergence of new preferences with regard to practices of reading and learning, and a new attitude toward the relationship between orality and literacy. Certain innovations that would only gain strength in later centuries—such as building freestanding libraries; experimenting with musical notation; expanding the means and role of printed books; and, most importantly for this essay, prioritizing mutālaʿa, or private and analytical reading—are among the noteworthy developments that signaled the gradual demise of a regime of reading practices that once recognized a larger role for oral, public, and green reading and that did not consider the book and its silent reader in an enclosed space as the best vehicle for the production and transmission of authoritative knowledge.

Bridging musical gaps: creating educational songs with thematic learning for primary school students

This study investigates how elementary school teachers without musical backgrounds create educational songs to support thematic learning under Indonesia's Kurikulum Merdeka. Thematic learning aims to integrate various subjects into cohesive themes, fostering student-centered learning (SCL) and emphasizing active engagement and critical thinking. Although the government provided the guiding textbooks, teachers face challenges in implementing SCL. Eventually, they often revert to conventional, teacher-centered methods. Previous research indicates that songs can serve as effective educational tools, but there is still a lack of thematic songs that align with the curriculum's specific themes. Using a case study approach, this research involved classroom observations, document analysis, and interviews with two first-grade teachers who developed songs for an environmental theme. The study found that teachers could create educational songs by deriving lyrics from teaching materials and improvising melodies, although they needed formal musical notation skills. Teachers and students then used these songs in classroom instruction, engaging in singing and physical activities. Despite inconsistencies in musical performance, the findings indicated that students were enthusiastic and better understood the material through these songs. The study highlights teachers' adaptive nature in leveraging available resources to meet educational objectives and emphasizes the importance of integrating arts, particularly music, into educational practices. The research contributes to the broader discourse on educational innovation, suggesting that even teachers without musical training can effectively create and use educational songs to enhance learning. Empowering teachers with resources and training in songwriting could further enrich thematic learning, fostering creativity, critical thinking, and collaboration among students. This approach aligns with the goals of the Kurikulum Merdeka, supporting holistic educational reforms and improving learning outcomes in Indonesian elementary education.

Punched Holes: Piano Rolls and the Visual Representation of Sound in White-Smith v. Apollo (1908)

Abstract In its ruling on White-Smith v. Apollo (1908), the Supreme Court declared that the punched holes of a player piano roll did not constitute a form of writing, and thus fell outside the purview of copyright statutes. Because the decision was superseded by the Copyright Act of 1909, which extended copyright coverage to piano rolls and sound recordings, commentators have relegated White-Smith v. Apollo to the status of legal footnote. The case, however, deserves closer attention. It reveals much about the fault lines between the auditory experience of music and its visual representation at the beginning of the era of recorded sound. Witness testimony is notable for its disquisitions on the history of musical notation, exegeses of recently patented notation systems, and philosophical ruminations on the nature of a musical work in relationship to its visual representation and sonic instantiation. Trial proceedings show how the perforations of a piano roll, which were more evocative of traditional musical notation than soundwaves etched on a phonograph cylinder or disc, destabilized the mundanity of reading music. Moreover, this instability suggests an explanation for why the piano rolls figuring in the case featured the music of Adam Geibel. The composer was blind, and in a lawsuit about the textuality of music, his disability served to contrast musical sights and sounds. Moreover, White-Smith v. Apollo furnishes a means of bringing the player piano out of the shadow of the phonograph, giving it a place in the “separation of the senses” that media scholars identify with modernity.