Multianode Photomultiplier Research Articles

Detector development for spin-echo SANS techniques using ZnS:Ag/6LiF and 6Li glass scintillators

Neutron spin-echo techniques exploit Larmor precession of the neutron spin to encode either the scattering angle or energy. These are powerful means to extend the measurable momentum transfer (Q) and energy (E) range in neutron scattering measurements. Standard small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) instruments are sensitive in a range of ≈ 10–200 nm, whereas these techniques allow the study of structures in materials on length scales of tens of nm up to tens of μm. The Larmor instrument at ISIS is equipped to operate in spin-echo modulated SANS (SEMSANS) and spin-echo SANS (SESANS) mode. Two separate detectors were developed to cope with the performance demands set by these techniques. The first is a position sensitive ZnS:Ag/6LiF scintillator-based detector coupled with wavelength shifting fibres that can be used for both SEMSANS and SESANS. A detector prototype using GS20 glass scintillator directly coupled to a multi-anode photomultiplier was developed as an alternative for SESANS measurements at higher incident neutron fluxes. The designs and results obtained with the two detectors are presented together with future improvements to both technologies. These, in addition to promising development routes, demonstrate the potential for utilising a WLSF ZnS:Ag/6LiF scintillator detector and a pixelated GS20 detector for SEMSANS and SESANS applications.

An end-to-end calibration of the Mini-EUSO detector in space

Mini-EUSO is a wide Field-of-View (44∘×44∘) telescope currently in operation from a nadir-facing Ultra-Violet (UV) transparent window in the Russian Zvezda module on the International Space Station (ISS). Mini-EUSO has been designed as a scaled-down version of the original JEM-EUSO telescope to raise its instrumentation’s technological readiness level and demonstrate its observational principle, while performing multidisciplinary studies on different fields such as atmospheric science and planetology. One of Mini-EUSO main goals is the study of the UV background for future space missions employing the same concept as the original JEM-EUSO telescope, which requires an absolute calibration of the Mini-EUSO instrument. During the past years, a few observational campaigns have been completed, employing a ground-based UV flasher to perform an end-to-end calibration of the instrument. In this paper, we present the assembled UV flasher system, the operation of the field campaign and the analysis of the obtained data. The results are interpreted by the means of a parametrization of the Mini-EUSO photon counts. The end-to-end efficiency of several pixels has been obtained, taking into account different parameters such as the atmospheric attenuation, the optics efficiency and the multi-anode photomultiplier detection efficiency.

Upgrade of the LHCb RICH detectors and characterization of the new opto-electronics chain

The LHCb detector has been upgraded to manage a five-fold increase in the instantaneous luminosity delivered to the experiment during LHC Run 3 and to readout data at the full bunch crossing rate of 40 MHz. The enhanced LHCb RICH detectors now feature Multianode Photomultiplier Tubes (MaPMTs), covering a total area of approximately 4 square meters, and brand-new frontend electronics to comply with the trigger-less readout architecture. The opto-electronics chain is capable of detecting single photons at repetition rates of up to 100 MHz/cm2 while maintaining an exceptionally low noise. The RICH upgrade is comprehensively outlined, including details about the characterization and studies on the photon detection system. The stability and uniformity achieved by optimizing the parameters of the opto-electronics chain enable the RICH system to function successfully and to provide excellent charged hadron identification in high occupancy conditions.

Performance of a coarsely pixelated LAPPD photosensor for the SoLID gas Cherenkov detectors

The SoLID spectrometer's gas Cherenkov counters require photosensors that operate in a high luminosity and high background environment. The reference design features arrays of 9 or 16 tiled multi-anode photomultipliers (MaPMTs), distributed across 32 sectors, to serve the light-gas and heavy-gas Cherenkov counters, respectively. To assess the viability of a pixelated INCOM Large Area Picosecond Photodetector (LAPPDTM) as an alternative photosensor to replace MaPMT arrays in either detector, we evaluated its performance under realistic SoLID running conditions in Hall C at the Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility (Jefferson Lab). The results of this test confirmed that the coarse-pixelated (2.5 × 2.5 cm2 pixel size) LAPPD is capable of handling the total projected signal and background rates of the three pillar SoLID experiments. The tested photosensor detected Cherenkov signals with the capability of separating single-electron events from pair production events while rejecting background. Although the design was not aimed at ring-imaging Cherenkov detectors, Cherenkov disk images were captured in two different gas radiators. Through a direct comparison with a GEANT4 simulation, we confirmed the experimental performance of the LAPPD.

Measurement of Naturally-Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM) using a scintillator-based alpha detector

It is important to differentiate between natural and artificial radioactive materials such as plutonium in nuclear facilities. In this study, a scintillator-based alpha-particle detector was developed using YAP:Ce scintillator and Multi-Anode PhotoMultiplier Tube. The detector was used to measure various naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM) samples including radon progeny, lead plate, lantern mantle, and radium ceramic ball. The measurement results were compared with Monte Carlo simulation calculations and were found to be in agreement. The energy resolution of the detector is 8.6%FWHM. In the measurement results of radon progeny, peaks of 212Bi (6.1 MeV), 214Po (7.7 MeV), and 212Po (8.8 MeV) can be observed. The lead plate contains 210Po and emits 5.3 MeV alpha particle. The simulation with the same energy was able to reproduce the actual measurement. The results showed the energy and distribution of the alpha particles emitted by the NORM samples. The study successfully demonstrated the capability of the developed alpha-particle detector in identifying NORM.

Gain variations as induced by the diffuse night sky background: the ASTRI-Horn experience

ASTRI-Horn is the prototype of the nine telescopes that form the ASTRI Mini-Array, under construction at the Teide Observatory in Tenerife (Spain), devoted to observe the sky in the 1–200 TeV energy band. It adopts an innovative optical design based on a dual-mirror Schwarzschild-Couder configuration, and the camera, composed by a matrix of monolithic multipixel silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs) is managed by ad-hoc tailored front-end electronics based on a peak-detector operation mode. During the Crab Nebula campaign in 2018–2019, ASTRI-Horn was affected by gain variations induced by high levels of night sky background. This paper reports the work performed to detect and quantify the effects of these gain variations in shower images. The analysis requested the use of simultaneous observations of the night sky background flux in the wavelength band 300–650 nm performed with the auxiliary instrument UVscope, a calibrated multi-anode photomultiplier working in single counting mode. As results, a maximum gain reduction of 15% was observed, in agreement with the value previously computed from the variance of the night sky background level in each image. This ASTRI-Horn gain reduction was caused by current limitation of the voltage supply. The analysis presented in this paper provides a method to evaluate possible variations in the nominal response of SiPMs when scientific observations are performed in the presence of high night sky background as in moon conditions.

Development of contamination detection system combined with various remote devices

The detection of alpha and beta contamination locations is important for decontaminating nuclear facilities. In the high radiation dose rate environment at the decommissioning sites, the contamination measurement by the workers is not effective. Thus, we developed a remote automatic contamination measurement system using a new scintillator-based detector. A 50 mmφ × 100-μm-thick YAlO3(Ce)(YAP:Ce) scintillator was coupled with a flat panel-type multianode photomultiplier tube. The detector was installed downwards at the bottom of a robot. It has an energy measurement capability, and the energy measurement could discriminate the alpha particles from the beta and 222Rn alpha particles. With the energy information, alpha and beta particles could be identified and mapped simultaneously. In addition, a slow-moving robot could be used to obtain statistically sufficient counts in a single run measurement, allowing the evaluation of surface contamination density using only alpha particles. The remote automatic contamination measurement system will be useful in visualizing the contamination distribution in environments that are inaccessible to workers.

Use of Silicon Photomultipliers in the Detectors of the JEM-EUSO Program

The JEM-EUSO program aims to study ultra-high energy cosmic rays from space. To achieve this goal, it has realized a series of experiments installed on the ground (EUSO-TA), various on stratospheric balloons (with the most recent one EUSO-SPB2), and inside the International Space Station (Mini-EUSO), in light of future missions such as K-EUSO and POEMMA. At nighttime, these instruments aim to monitor the Earth’s atmosphere measuring fluorescence and Cherenkov light produced by extensive air showers generated both by very high-energy cosmic rays from outside the atmosphere and by neutrino decays. As the two light components differ in duration (order of microseconds for fluorescence light and a few nanoseconds for Cherenkov light) they each require specialized sensors and acquisition electronics. So far, the sensors used for the fluorescence camera are the Multi-Anode Photomultiplier Tubes (MAPMTs), while for the Cherenkov one, new systems based on Silicon PhotoMultipliers (SiPMs) have been developed. In this contribution, a brief review of the experiments is followed by a discussion of the tests performed on the optical sensors. Particular attention is paid to the development, test, and calibration conducted on SiPMs, also in view to optimize the geometry, mass, and weight in light of the installation of mass-critical applications such as balloon- and space-borne instrumentation.

Data reduction for spatially resolved reflectance anisotropy spectrometer.

We show that in spatially resolved reflectance anisotropy (RA) spectrometers, off-axis optical rays introduce a spurious signal component that cannot be addressed by optical alignment. Such a component is associated with the difference between the reflectivities s and p of the sample and depends, in a complex manner, on the incidence position of the incident light on the surface of the sample. We report a data-reduction procedure to easily identify and remove spurious RA signals associated with the off-axis optical rays, based on the singular value decomposition analysis of spatially resolved RA spectra. We validated this approach by developing a spatially resolved RA spectrometer based on an 8 × 8 multi-anode photomultiplier (PMT). The PMT allowed the use of phase-sensitive detection techniques to enhance the signal-to-noise ratio, which is essential for the evaluation of the proposed data reduction procedure.

Compton Camera Arrangement With a Monolithic LaBr3(Ce) Scintillator and Pixelated GAGG Detector for Medical Imaging

The results presented in this manuscript are divided in two main parts. The aim of the presented work is to conduct feasibility tests on a Compton camera setup to be later scaled up and used for PET and triple coincidence γ-PET purposes. The first part is focused on laboratory characterization of a monolithic LaBr3(Ce) scintillator coupled to a 64-channel multi-anode photomultiplier (H8500C PMT from Hamamatsu) in combination with a well-established algorithm allowing to determine the interaction’s position resolution. The second part of the article is dedicated to the evaluation of a Compton camera detector arrangement in which the monolithic scintillator acts as an absorber, while a pixelated GAGG scintillator array, read out by a SiPM multi-pixel photon counter (MPPC), is used as a scatterer component. The accuracy achievable with this system for detecting γ rays from laboratory point sources is investigated. The Compton camera system has been tested with radioactive 137Cs and 60Co point sources. The signal readout and data acquisition system is based on individual spectroscopy electronics modules (NIM and VME), for the absorber and a customized electronics based on Anger logic for the GAGG scatter array. The raw data were analyzed to serve as input for the image reconstruction, performed using the MEGAlib toolkit software. With a spatial resolution of 1 mm for the scatterer and less than 3 mm for the absorber component, respectively, shifts of 2 mm of both radioactive sources (137Cs and 60Co) could be resolved with the whole Compton camera system.

Characterisation and operations of the Multianode Photomultiplier Tubes for the LHCb RICH detectors

The upgraded LHCb RICH detectors are equipped with Multianode Photomultiplier Tubes, covering a total area of approximately four square metres. In order to achieve the same excellent hadron identification performance as during LHC Runs 1 and 2 at five times the instantaneous luminosity, the photon detectors have to be sensitive to single photons with repetition rates of up to 100MHz/cm2 and to have a very low noise count rate. The main properties of the photomultipliers are presented, together with the characterisation of an unexpected source of noise observed in the Hamamatsu R11265 Multianode Photomultiplier Tubes, extending up to several microseconds after the primary signal. The quality control results, the mitigation strategies for the aforementioned noise to perform optimal single-photon counting at 40 MHz, and the first operations of the RICH system are described.

Qualification of DIRICH readout chain

The DIRICH front-end board (FEB) is a 32+1 channel FPGA based TDC readout module for Multianode Photomultipliers (MAPMT), and also Multianode MCPs. Due to its low cost and excellent timing precision in single photon measurement applications it will be used in the RICH detector of the Compressed Baryonic Matter (CBM) experiment at the future FAIR facility at GSI Darmstadt, Germany.In the regions of highest photon density at the CBM RICH one expects an average hit rate of ≃300 kHz per MAPMT pixel (6 mm × 6 mm) and ∼15% occupancy for minimum bias Au+Au collisions at 35 A GeV at an interaction rate of 10 MHz. In order to validate the high-rate capability of the DIRICH readout, a dedicated lab setup simulating realistic detector signals by employing a pulsed picosecond laser light source in combination with a constant current driven LED was commissioned. In this paper the setup is introduced and first results are discussed. We show that individual readout channels can withstand photon rates up to 2.2 MHz per pixel, limited only by maximum data rate capability and buffer size on the front-end board. Using the same setup, also effects of high photon occupancy on the MAPMTs are investigated, which might cause additional signals due to capacitive cross-talk within the MAPMT or readout chain. Occupancies of up to 55% (simultaneous photon hits on more than half of the MAPMT pixels) are investigated, indicating that in the expected occupancy range of 10%–15% the readout works flawlessly with very low cross-talk.

Status and perspectives of vacuum-based photon detectors

In this overview article vacuum-based photon detectors are reviewed emphasizing their applications in Cherenkov imaging devices. After the discussion of the basic detector stages such as photo cathode, electron multiplication, and (anode) readout, the status and recent progress with single- and multi-anode dynode photomultipliers (PMTs), hybrid (avalanche) photodetectors and microchannel-plate PMTs are presented. For all of these devices selected examples of their current and planned applications in neutrino, astroparticle, and high energy physics experiments are given. Possible future developments and innovations are also debated. The last part of this review is dedicated to a comparison of important performance parameters like particle detection efficiency, gain inside a magnetic field, rate capability, aging and lifetime issues, and radiation tolerance.

A novel fast-timing readout chain for LHCb RICH LS3 and prototype beam tests

The prompt Cherenkov radiation and focusing optics of the LHCb RICH detectors allow the prediction of the Cherenkov photon detection time from a given charged particle to within 10ps. Fast-timing information on the detected Cherenkov photons can therefore be used to significantly improve the particle identification (PID) performance and the signal-to-background ratio of the detectors. This concept is a cornerstone for the LHCb RICH detector upgrades and will ultimately allow the system to operate at a luminosity in excess of 1034cm−2s−1 during HL-LHC Run 5. A new electronic readout chain is proposed for the LHC Long Shutdown 3 (LS3, 2026-2028) using the FastRICH, a novel ASIC under development. The specifications for the FastRICH are discussed in the context of the LS3 enhancements and LHCb Upgrade II. The FastRICH will perform multi-channel single-photon discrimination, timestamp photons with 25 ps bin size, integrate closely with the LHCb optical link chipset and apply data-compression techniques. The detector will be capable of timestamping each photon with 150ps resolution dominated by the existing Multianode Photomultiplier Tube (MAPMT) transit-time spread. The new electronic readout chain introduces important timing and detector techniques ahead of the Upgrade II RICH system overhaul and the FastRICH has the flexibility to be coupled to sensors with better time resolution for HL-LHC Run 5. Simulation studies have demonstrated improvements in the hadronic PID performance during Run 4 using the FastRICH coupled to MAPMTs. A first version of the readout chain, based on the FastIC, a predecessor of the FastRICH, and a TDC-in-FPGA, has been studied using Cherenkov photons at the CERN SPS charged particle beam test facility.

Quality assurance for the LHCb RICH upgrade Photon-Detection chain

During the Long Shutdown 2 of the LHC, the LHCb RICH system has undergone an upgrade to implement the LHCb trigger strategy which increased the read-out rate from 1 MHz to 40 MHz. The new challenging operating conditions of the upgraded experiment required the replacement of the Hybrid Photon Detectors with Multi-Anode Photomultiplier tubes (MaPMT) and the introduction of new customised front-end electronics. The new RICH detectors have a modular design to facilitate maintenance and assembly. The fundamental core element is the Elementary Cell (EC), which is composed of one or four MaPMTs, depending on the type of the MaPMT, and the associated front-end electronics. An overview of the protocols and testing facilities which have been designed and put in place to perform the quality assurance programme is presented. This process lasted more than six years and included the testing and characterisation of the new front-end electronics, the MaPMTs, the ECs, and the photon detector assembly (columns), commissioning, and installation of the columns in the LHCb cavern.

Upgrade of the scintillator detector for particle tracking in experiments with antiprotons

Experiments with antiprotons often require the tracking of charged particles emerging from the annihilation process. The Atomic Spectroscopy And Collisions Using Slow Antiprotons (ASACUSA) collaboration at the CERN Antiproton Decelerator (AD) used several panels of scintillating bars placed around the interaction region to detect the passage of charged pions and determine the annihilation vertex position and time. The panels were composed by extruded scintillating bars and the light was collected using WaveLength Shifting (WLS) fibers and multi-anode PhotoMultiplier Tubes (PMTs). After operating for several years, the fiber-PMT coupling quality had degraded and a major upgrade of the light readout system was planned. The PMTs will be replaced by Silicon PhotoMultipliers (SiPMs) and the front-end electronics changed accordingly. An improvement is expected in the efficiency and the uniformity of the detector response. In this contribution the commissioning of the upgrade will be described, including the results of preliminary tests with cosmic rays.

Integration, qualification, and launch of the Mini-EUSO telescope on board the ISS

Mini-EUSO is a high-sensitivity imaging telescope that observes the Earth from the ISS in the near ultraviolet band (290 $$\div$$ 430 nm), through the nadir-facing, UV-transparent window in the Russian Zvezda module. The instrument, launched in 2019, has a field of view of 44 $$^{\circ }$$ , a spatial resolution on the Earth’s surface of 6.3 km and a temporal sampling rate of 2.5 microseconds. Thanks to its triggering and on-board processing, the telescope is capable of detecting UV emissions of cosmic, atmospheric, and terrestrial origin on different time scales, from a few microseconds up to tens of milliseconds. The optics is composed of two Fresnel lenses focusing light onto an array of 36 Hamamatsu Multi-Anode PhotoMultiplier Tubes, for a total of 2304 pixels. The telescope also contains two cameras in the near-infrared and visible, an 8-by-8 array of Silicon-PhotoMultipliers and a series of UV sensors to manage night-day transitions. The scientific objectives range from the observation of atmospheric phenomena [lightning, Transient Luminous Events (TLEs), ELVES], the study of meteoroids, the search of interstellar meteoroids and strange quark matter, mapping of the Earth’s nocturnal emissions in the ultraviolet range, and the search of cosmic rays with energy above 10 $$^{21}$$ eV. The instrument has been integrated and qualified in 2019, with the final tests in Baikonur prior to its launch. Operations involve periodic installation in the Zvezda module of the station with observations during the crew night time, with periodic downlink of data samples, with the full data being sent to the ground via pouches containing the data disks. Mission planning involves the selection of the optimal orbits to maximize the scientific return of the instrument. In this work, we will describe the various phases of construction, testing, and qualification prior to the launch and the in-flight operations of the instrument on board the ISS.

Implications of Mini-EUSO measurements for a space-based observation of UHECRs

Mini-EUSO is the first mission of the JEM-EUSO program on board the International Space Station. It was launched in 2019 and it is currently located in the Russian section (Zvezda module) of the station and viewing our planet from a nadir-facing UV-transparent window. The instrument is based on the concept of the original JEM-EUSO mission and consists of an optical system employing two Fresnel lenses and a focal surface composed of 36 Multi-Anode Photomultiplier tubes, 64 channels each, for a total of 2304 channels with single photon counting sensitivity and an overall field of view of 44° × 44°. Mini-EUSO can map the night-time Earth in the near UV range (predominantly between 290 nm and 430 nm), with a spatial resolution of about 6.3 km and different temporal resolutions of 2.5 µ, 320 µs and 41 ms. Mini-EUSO observations are extremely important to better assess the potential of a space-based detector in studying Ultra-High Energy Cosmic Rays (UHECRs) such as K-EUSO and POEMMA. In this contribution we focus the attention on UV measurements, the observation of clouds and of certain categories of events that Mini-EUSO triggers with the shortest temporal resolution. We place them in the context of UHECR observations from space, namely the estimation of exposure and sensitivity to Extensive Air Showers.

An end-to-end in-flight calibration of Mini-EUSO detector

Mini-EUSO is a wide Field-of-View (FoV, 44°) telescope currently in operation from a nadir-facing UV-transparent window in the Russian Zvezda module on the International Space Station (ISS). It is the first detector of the JEM-EUSO program deployed on the ISS, launched in August 2019. The main goal of Mini-EUSO is to measure the UV emissions from the ground and atmosphere, using an orbital platform. Mini-EUSO is mainly sensitive in the 290–430 nm bandwidth. Light is focused by a system of two Fresnel lenses of 25 cm diameter each on the Photo-Detector-Module (PDM), which consists of an array of 36 Multi-Anode Photomultiplier Tubes (MAPMTs), arranged in blocks of 2 × 2 called Elementary Cells (ECs), for a total of 2304 pixels working in photon counting mode, in three different time resolutions of 2.5 µs (defined as 1 Gate Time Unit, GTU), 320 µs and 40.96 ms operating in parallel. In the longest time scale, the data is continuously acquired to monitor the UV emission of the Earth. It is best suited for the observation of ground sources and therefore has been used for the observational campaigns of the ground-based UV flasher in order to perform an end-to-end calibration of Mini-EUSO. In this contribution, the assembled UV flasher, the operation of the field campaign and the analysis of the obtained data are presented. The result is compared with the overall effi ciency computed from the expectations which takes into account the atmospheric attenuation and the parametrisation of different effects such as the optics effi ciency, the MAPMT detection effi ciency, BG3 filter transmittance and the transparency of the ISS window.

Development of a GAGG(Ce)-based compact 3D scanning setup for assessment of active volume in [formula omitted]-ray detectors

A Ce-doped GAGG (Gadolinium Aluminum Gallium Garnet: Gd3Al2Ga3O12) scintillator crystal has been coupled with a multianode position sensitive photomultiplier tube (PSPMT). The system is made compact by employing an external resistive network that reduces the 64 readouts of the PSPMT to only four signals. The resulting GAGG(Ce)-PSPMT setup has been put to use for quick scanning of γ-ray detectors by reconstructing the image of the latter with coincident photons between the pair of detectors. In the present work, such scans are demonstrated for an old single-crystal coaxial reverse-electrode HPGe detector as well as an old clover HPGe detector. For the single-crystal HPGe, the growth of the effective depleted region under increasing reverse-bias voltages has been visualized from the image reconstruction. The active volume is seen to grow from the surface towards the axial cavity. For the clover HPGe detector, dysfunctional portions in the crystals could be identified. The experimental results are found to agree well with simulation carried out using the GEANT4 toolkit. Scanning a detector using this method is faster compared to the scanning process by a point source.