Mountainous Country Research Articles

Gender-wise contribution in carbon management by high himalayan ethnic group of Gatlang VDC, Rasuwa, Nepal

In mountainous country Nepal having large populations of culturally unique indigenous peoples poses threats of glaciers retreat and resource bases change. The indigenous people living in mountain plays the major role in carbon management. Further, the role and responsibilities of men and women varies differently in natural resource conservation and management. However, their participation in decision-making and benefit sharing is poor. The majority of women have unequal access to productive resources and decision-making process. Therefore, study on gender based agro-pastoral activities, their contribution on carbon management and decision-making process were carried out in Tamang ethnic group of Gatlang VDC of Rasuwa district, Nepal. For the purpose, 30 households were selected purposively. Similarly, four focus group discussions were carried out among the separate group of women, men and group consisting both men and women. Carbon management types: input carbon and output carbon activities were studied on men and women. In total, 23 different agro-pastorals related activities were found, among them 57% of work were supported by women, 39% by both men and women, and 4% by men only. With respect to fuel-wood, in average, 10 kg per day fuelwood is necessary for one household. The use of biomass for cooking emits chocking smoke and causes indoor air pollution. All these disadvantages lead to carbon emission which might lead to health deterioration of women by increasing the risk of cardiovascular diseases and respiratory disorders. The average fuel-wood requirement was found to be 840 kg/capita/year which are found to be higher than the other physiographic regions of Nepal. This is due to use of fuel-wood as only source of energy in the study area. Out of total respondent, it was observed that 30% literate men allow their wife to make joint decision on the major household issues. Similarly, 3% literate women respondents took the major decision by their own or jointly with their husbands. On the other hand, 30% illiterate men and 37% illiterate women either didn’t allow their wife or don’t participate in major decision-making process. Further, it is revealed from the chi square test that literacy plays major role in decision making (x2 = 5.625, df =1, p=0.017). Similarly, educated women actively join together with their husband in decision making. Moreover, women have high contribution in carbon input and output activities. Therefore, the women education should be promoted to make their equal and strong participation in decision making, which ultimately contribute in carbon input and output activities, through their greater roles in livestock husbandry and fuel-wood management relative to men. Further, importance of women’s role in carbon management should be given greater prominence.

Development of deforestation and land cover database for Bhutan (1930-2014).

Bhutan is a mountainous country located in the Himalayan biodiversity hotspot. This study has quantified the total area under land cover types, estimated the rate of forest cover change, analyzed the changes across forest types, and modeled forest cover change hotpots in Bhutan. The topographical maps and satellite remote sensing images were analyzed to get the spatial patterns of forest and associated land cover changes over the past eight decades (1930-1977-1987-1995-2005-2014). Forest is the largest land cover in Bhutan and constitutes 68.3% of the total geographical area in 2014. Subtropical broad leaved hill forest is predominant type occupies 34.1% of forest area in Bhutan, followed by montane dry temperate (20.9%), montane wet temperate (18.9%), Himalayan moist temperate (10%), and tropical moist sal (8.1%) in 2014. The major forest cover loss is observed in subtropical broad leaved hill forest (64.5km2) and moist sal forest (9.9km2) from 1977 to 2014. The deforested areas have mainly been converted into agriculture and contributed for 60.9% of forest loss from 1930 to 2014. In spite of major decline of forest cover in time interval of 1930-1977, there is no net rate of deforestation is recorded in Bhutan since 1995. Forest cover change analysis has been carried out to evaluate the conservation effectiveness in "Protected Areas" of Bhutan. Hotspots that have undergone high transformation in forest cover for afforestation and deforestation were highlighted in the study for conservation prioritisation. Forest conservation policies in Bhutan are highly effective in controlling deforestation as compared to neighboring Asian countries and such service would help in mitigating climate change.

The main factors of development and transformation of the mountainous countries (for example RA)

Abstract In modern conditions development, transformation and improvement of the rural resettlement in mountainous countries occurs under the influence of natural, manufacturing, social-demographic, administrative, urban and other factors. in the article with the help of correlation method analysis the impact of concrete factors into the indicators of the RA rural resettlement were disclosed, particularly on the number of people in the villages. In essence, the number of people in rural settlement in general expresses the overall picture of the rural resettlement and also the result of development and transformation of the rural settlement.

GREEK CULTURE IN AFGHANISTAN AND INDIA: OLD EVIDENCE AND NEW DISCOVERIES

In 1888 Rudyard Kipling published a collection of short-stories entitledThe Phantom Rickshaw and Other Eerie Tales. Perhaps the most famous of these stories, ‘The Man Who Would Be King’, recounted the adventures of two British military veterans, Peachy Carnahan and Daniel Dravot Esq., played by Michael Caine and Sean Connery in John Huston's 1975 film of the same name. Both men have seen India's cities and jungles, jails and palaces, and have decided that she is too small for the likes of they. So, they set out to become kings of Kafiristan, a mountainous, isolated, and unstudied country beyond the Hindu Kush in north-eastern Afghanistan. They confide their plan to their recent acquaintance Rudyard Kipling (Christopher Plummer), then editor of theNorthern Star, who calls them mad. No man, he says, has made it to Kafiristan since Alexander the Great, to which Peachy replies ‘If a Greek can do it, we can do it.’ What they find in north-eastern Afghanistan are the last remnants of Alexander the Great's empire, a local culture and religion part-Greek and part-Kafiri. The story is fiction, but aspects of its historical context are true. Alexander spent most of the years 330–325 campaigning in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India, and he left behind Greek kingdoms and culture that flourished throughout the Hellenistic period and even later. Traces of these Greek kingdoms are continually coming to light and the archaeological, artistic, and epigraphic evidence coming out of Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India reveals a prosperous and culturally diverse kingdom.

ROAD ACCESSIBILITY AND WEALTH IN RURAL BHUTAN: A DIFFERENCE IN DIFFERENCE APPROACH

1. INTRODUCTIONBhutan is a low middle-income country (World Bank, 2014) with a total Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of $897.02 million in 2013 (National Statistics Bureau [NSB], 2014a). Due to its small population base of about 720,697 (NSB, 2013), per capita GDP is relatively higher compared to its neighbouring countries. Bhutan's per capita GDP is about $2,420 as compared to $1,913 of India, $840 of Bangladesh and $700 of Nepal in 2012 (World Bank, 2014). During the 10th Five Year Plan (FYP) period, which is from mid 2008 to mid 2013, Bhutan saw huge reduction in poverty from 23 percent in 2007 to 12 percent in 2012 (NSB, 2012) but poverty still remains a major concern for the government. As Bhutan is mostly an agrarian economy, poverty in Bhutan is mostly a rural phenomenon. Increasing rural income was one of the main objectives of the 10th FYP activities. The goal was to enhance mean rural household income to Nu. 35,000 per year in local currency unit Ngultrum (Gross National Happiness Commission [GNHC], 2009).Bhutan is a mountainous country, making road networking a very challenging task. Rural poverty in Bhutan is mostly associated with inadequate access to markets, among many other factors (GNHC, 2009, Road connectivity is essential in a landlocked country like Bhutan for development activities and in promoting domestic and international trade. Realising its importance, government of Bhutan felt the need to upgrade and improve transport infrastructure in the country. Therefore, another important target in the 10th FYP was also to ensure that three fourths of the rural population lives less than half a day's walk from the nearest road-head. The target was aimed to achieve through various activities such as construction of thousands of kilometers of feeder roads, building of national highways and district roads (GNHC, 2009, p.43). As of 2013, total length of roads in Bhutan is 10,578.3 Kilometers (kms) connecting all the 20 districts in the country (NSB, 2014b). Non-black topped roads with a total length of 7,602.9 kms is more than double the length of the tarred or blacktopped roads of 2,975.3 kms (NSB, 2014b)The importance of road accessibility to promote social and economic development is well recorded in the past literatures. Using a semi parametric procedure in analysing the household level benefits from road projects, Jacoby (2000) finds that providing extensive road access to markets would give substantial benefits on average, much of these going to poor households in Nepal. Similarly, Fan and Chan-Kang (2004) finds that low quality roads which are mostly rural roads has the higher potential to contribute to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and alleviate rural and urban poor from poverty in China. However, the size of the market to which the road access is provided is found to be important. Access to small towns is found to have less benefits from road connectivity in Malaysia (Windle and Cramb, 1997). Contrarily, Hettige (2006) sees that rural roads are necessary but not a sufficient condition for graduating poor households from poverty in Indonesia, Philippines and Sri Lanka. It is believed that household asset base determines the use of road.However, the previous studies are mostly concerned with the impact of road accessibility to social and economic growth at a point in time. The current study proposes to measure the effect of a policy, which is providing increased road accessibility on household wealth in rural Bhutan. In doing so, this study adopts a difference in difference (DiD) approach to see if road connectivity has increased wealth in the country during the 10th FYP development phase. Many of the studies that employ DiD approach is based on panel data. Pooled cross section data are very rarely studied and more so, using national level data is very sparse. To the best knowledge of the author, it is only Kiel and McClain (1995) that used pooled cross section data to study the effect of new garbage incinerator on housing values in North Andover, Massachusetts. …

Geological records of storms, tsunamis and other extreme events

The rapidly expanding human occupation of coastal areas results in an ever increasing threat from devastating geo- and meteorological hazards such as earthquakes, tsunamis, storms and floods. Research on the frequency and impact of historical or prehistorical disasters is therefore essential in improving our understanding of their risk so as to be better prepared for future events. The geological record provides the way to understand the prehistorical record of hazard events and is complementary to the short timescale of the historical record. Because of their long time-scales, geological records inform on low-frequency and/or high-consequence disasters that our highly organized modern civilization has never experienced. After the recent major disasters of the 2004 Indian Ocean and 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunamis, there is an increasing social demand for geohazard research and based on these events major advances in understanding have been made. The international symposium “Tsunami hazards and risks: using geological record” provided a forum for these recent advances on hazard research. The symposium was co-hosted by the Geological Society of Japan and the Geological Society of London, and held at the 121st Annual Meeting of the Geological Society of Japan in Kagoshima in September 2014. This thematic issue was planned in association with the symposium, and includes 6 papers, which we briefly introduce here. Descriptions of modern tsunami deposits are essential in providing more reliable identification of tsunami deposits in prehistorical sedimentary strata, and in the more accurate estimation of inundation areas of past tsunamis. Matsumoto et al. (2016) describe detailed grain size and sedimentary structures of tsunami deposits of the 2011 Tohoku earthquake, and instability of the sedimentary characteristics that probably comes from local topography and also differences in vegetation. They also report on the discordance between inundation distance and inland distribution of the tsunami deposits that can cause considerable underestimation of past tsunami inundation. Geochemical analysis is a powerful technique to identify the source of the sediments, and grows increasingly important in paleoenvironmental, paleotsunami and paleostorm studies. This special issue includes two recent advances in geochemical studies. Shinozaki et al. (2016) measured stable carbon isotope ratios, biomarkers and water-leachable ions in deposits of the 2011 Tohoku tsunami and preexisting surface soils, and examined temporal changes in these geochemical characteristics. They found that concentrations of tsunami-derived water-leachable ions were highest in the soil immediately beneath the tsunami deposit, but were diluted to be undetectable 3 years after the tsunami struck, probably due to rainfall and leaching. Unlike the previous study (Shinozaki et al. 2015), marine biomarkers are not found in this study, implying that more research on biomarker preservation is needed. Chagué-Goff et al. (2016) revealed long-term environmental changes and seawater intrusion events at Lake Tiriara, Mangaia, Cook Islands during the past ca. 3,500 years. They studied a continuous high resolution elemental profile of a peat sequence using aITRAX core scanner, and processed the ITRAX data with principal component analysis to group elements as detrital, organic matter, biogenic and marine origin. Based on geochemical signatures as well as microfossil contents, they propose one cyclone deposit and three probable paleotsunami deposits in the peat sequence. Many boulders on intertidal flat and subaerial lowlands are considered as consequences of tsunami transportation. Coastal boulders have a high potential for being effective recording mediums of past coastal disasters. However, some of them can be moved by single or multiple storms. Though sedimentological and theoretical methods to distinguish between tsunami and storm wave boulders have been proposed, identification of tsunami boulders is often considerably difficult with many uncertainties. Watanabe et al. (2016) developed a numerical scheme to differentiate tsunami and storm wave boulders and applied it on Ishigaki Island, Japan. They estimate the maximum storm wave at the study site from numerical calculations that explains the distribution of storm wave boulders on the reef. On the other hand, coral boulders on the shoreline much exceed the boulder size that could be transported by storm wave at the study site. Because the island was severely damaged by the 1771 Meiwa tsunami, the authors numerically estimate the period and amplitude of the tsunami based on the boulder distribution with the assumption that the boulders were transported by the 1771 Meiwa tsunami. This study provides reasonable hydraulic parameters of past tsunamis, and validates the usefulness of tsunami boulders for disaster reduction. Examples of past environment–society interactions improve our understanding of the impact of future environmental changes on human societies. Goff & Nunn (2016) review social change data on Pacific Ocean islands to obtain insights into environmental changes in the 14th and 15th centuries. Yamada et al. (2016) provide detailed description on erosion and deposition of a flooding event in July 2013 in Japan. Their observations will help not only identifying flooding events in sedimentary strata but also understanding development of flood plains in mountainous countries including Japan.

The Burden of Zoonoses in Kyrgyzstan: A Systematic Review.

IntroductionZoonotic disease (ZD) pose a serious threat to human health in low-income countries. In these countries the human burden of disease is often underestimated due to insufficient monitoring because of insufficient funding. Quantification of the impact of zoonoses helps in prioritizing healthcare needs. Kyrgyzstan is a poor, mountainous country with 48% of the population employed in agriculture and one third of the population living below the poverty line.Methodology/Principal FindingsWe have assessed the burden of zoonoses in Kyrgyzstan by conducting a systematic review. We have used the collected data to estimate the burden of ZDs and addressed the underestimation in officially reported disease incidence. The estimated incidences of the ZDs were used to calculate incidence-based Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs). This standardized health gap measure enhances comparability between injuries and diseases. The combined burden for alveolar echinococcosis, cystic echinococcosis, brucellosis, campylobacteriosis, congenital toxoplasmosis, non-typhoidal salmonellosis and rabies in Kyrgyzstan in 2013 was 35,209 DALYs [95% Uncertainty interval (UI):13,413–83,777]; 576 deaths [95% UI: 279–1,168] were attributed to these infections. We estimate a combined median incidence of ZDs of 141,583 cases [95% UI: 33,912–250,924] in 2013. The highest burden was caused by non-typhoidal Salmonella and Echinococcus multilocularis, respectively 14,792 DALYs [95% UI: 3,966–41,532] and 11,915 DALYs [95% UI: 4,705–27,114] per year.Conclusion/SignificanceThe health impact of zoonoses in Kyrgyzstan is substantial, comparable to that of HIV. Community-based surveillance studies and hospital-based registration of all occurrences of zoonoses would increase the accuracy of the estimates.

Spatial distribution of mountainous regions and classifications of economic development in China

China is a mountainous country with a great diversity of landform and geomorphology. This diversity underlines the need for regionalization and classification. This study defines the mountain terrains and regions with three criteria - elevation, relative height, and slope, and examines the extent of mountainous regions by using county as the basic administrative unit. According to the three parameters of economic base, resident income and development potential, we classified the economic development level in mountainous regions of China. The findings reveal that the extent of the mountainous region accounts for 74.9% of the Mainland China's total area. The economic development of mountainous regions in China is classified into 4 main types and 23 subtypes.

MAIN MOTIVES OF M. AKHMEDOV’S LYRICS

In this article on the basis of the analysis of the poetic works transferred to Russian, authors consider the main motives of lyrics of the Avarian poet Mahomed Akhmedov. The lyrical hero of the National poet of Dagestan, the pupil Rasoul Gamzatov, glorifies the native language, the mountain country and lives pleasures and grieves of the people. A genre variety of creativity of M. Akhmedov is presented by philosophical, religious, civil, landscape, love lyrics, miniatures, dedications, ballads, sonnets and poems. The philosophical, religious, civil, landscape and love lyric is subjected to the analysis. Authors in the article pay special attention to the lyrical poem Arafat written after commission of the Hajj – pilgrimage to the Sacred Kaaba. Patriotism, belief and life, the poet and the people, loneliness, the poet and the woman, internal relationship with destinies of classics of the Russian and Dagestan literature, thought about destiny of the gifted personality, a poetry role as special type of weapon in fight for moral ideals – the main motives sounding in lyrics of the Avarian poet. In M. Akhmedov's creativity works in which the civic stand of the lyrical hero is distinctly expressed are presented. In a number of poems stands out poetic and valuable reference points and the author's priorities: desire to serve as the word to the people, to be moral pure, faithful to the conscience and national traditions. The nature – one of the integral components of lyrics of M. Akhmedov. The poet often uses landscape sketches for disclosure of a state of mind, psychology of the personality. Internal relationship with destinies of classics of the Russian and Dagestan literature, thought about destiny of the gifted personality, a poetry role as special type of weapon in fight for moral ideals – the main motives sounding in lyrics of the Avarian poet.

Reservoirs on the mountain rivers and their safety

Abstract Water resource issues and problems in the world's developing countries, present special challenges, as development of these countries significantly depends on the utilization of water resources. Georgia nestled between the Black Sea, Russia, and Turkey, and surrounded by the Caucasus Mountains, occupies a unique geographic space, which gives it strategic importance far beyond its size. Though blessed by its rich hydro resources, Georgia due to its uneven distribution, experiences some problems as the demand on water frequently doesn't coincide with water provision. As a result it causes acute deficit situation. Due to the global warming of the climate, it is expected that the fresh water amount will decrease in Georgia. This is why it is necessary to approach the use of water resources in a complex way by means of water reservoirs, which will enable attaining of a large economic effect. In the mountainous conditions filling of reservoirs take place in spring time, when snow and glaciers melt. In Georgia as in mountainous country, abundant rains take place, thus causing catastrophic flooding on rivers. In summer and winter water amount decreases 10 times and irrigation, water provision and energy production is impeded. Thus, the lack of water just like the excess amount of water causes damage. This is why it is needed to forecast water amount in water reservoirs for different periods of the year. But in a complex, mountainous terrain operative data of hydrometeorology is not sufficient for application of modern mathematical methods. We have elaborated multiple-factor statistical model for a forecast, which by means of different mathematical criteria and methods can simultaneously research the increase of the timeliness of forecasts and the level of their precision. We have obtained methodologies for short and long term forecasts of inflowing water properties in Georgia's main water reservoirs to further plan optimally and regulate water resources and their unimpeded and safe exploitation.

Raise the Flag for Mountains: Enhancing Policy Dialogue and Knowledge Sharing through the World Mountain Forum Series

As a mountain country, Switzerland has an intrinsic interest and a proven track record in sustainable mountain development (SMD). Many Swiss stakeholders, including the federal and cantonal administrations, universities, and nongovernmental organizations, actively contribute to global SMD in many ways. Switzerland, with its extensive operational experience in mountainous countries around the world, has been one of the driving forces promoting policy dialogue and knowledge management among different actors to support SMD on various levels. This is reflected in its support for the United Nations’ Agenda 21 and the recent Agenda 2030. Still, after close to 25 years of global policy engagement, the voice of the mountains has not yet gained sufficient momentum and needs further strengthening.

The Relationships between Climate Variability and Crop Yield in a Mountainous Environment: A Case Study in Lamjung District, Nepal

Several studies have concluded that mountainous countries such as Nepal are more vulnerable to climate change; thus, a changing climate should have a significant impact on crop yields. This work aims to explore the impact of climate change on major crop yields in the mountainous parts of Nepal and to determine their relationships based on a regression model between historical climatic data and yield data for food crops. The study starts with an analysis of the last 30 years of climatic data from Lamjung district. Mann-Kendall and Sen’s Slope methods have been used for the trend analysis and quantification. The results showed an increase in temperature of approximately 0.02 °C to 0.07 °C per year in different seasons and a mixed trend in precipitation. Although there was no significant impact of the climate variables on the yields of all crops, the regression analysis revealed negative relationships between maize yield and summer precipitation and between wheat yield and winter minimum temperature, and a positive relationship between millet yield and summer maximum temperature.

A New Approach to the Land Capability Classification: Case Study of Turkey

Land capability classification is one of the very important issues in terms of sustainable land use. Many land capability classifications have been prepared and applied especially in the developed countries such as USA, UK and France. Most of the land capability classification systems and mapping are an adaptation of the US Department of Agriculture method. Up to now the criteria that are taken into consideration in the land capability classification are topography especially inclination of slope and soil properties, in general. In a mountainous country or regions topographic-geomorphic unites, climate and parent material are factors that must be taken into consideration in order to establish land capability classification. All these criteria are used in this study. The aim of this study is to reestablish a land classification according to the geomorphic units, climate and parent material factors in Turkey. According to these criteria, seven land capability classes were determined. Moreover, the subclass are identified according the parent material properties that mostly outcropped on the mountainous areas.

Effect of climate warming on maize production in Timor-Leste: interaction with nitrogen supply

Climate change is predicted to decrease crop yields in semi-arid and subtropical regions of the world and this could negatively affect smallholder farmers in the developing world. Previous analysis has suggested that with low fertiliser input, yields of sorghum increased as temperatures increased. We used the wide range of tropical environments in the small mountainous island country of Timor-Leste to evaluate the impact of global warming on maize (Zea mays) yields with (i) no fertiliser input and (ii) increased nitrogen (N) supply. We calibrated the well-tested APSIM-Maize model for the cultivar of maize grown throughout Timor-Leste. We simulated maize yields at four locations with 8 years of reliable weather records, at present temperatures, +1.5°C and +3.0°C, with 0, 40 and 80 kg/ha of added N, with 1.2, 1.9 and 3.8% soil organic carbon (SOC), and with increased duration of the vegetative phase. With no added N, higher temperatures increased yields at the cooler, higher elevation sites and decreased yields at the warmest site near the coast. With fertiliser application, warming temperatures decreased yields or induced no change in simulated yield at all locations. Simulations with three levels of N supply for the four sites, which differed in temperature, showed a strong temperature × N supply interaction on yield. At maximum growing-season temperatures >31°C, yields decreased with increasing temperature at all levels of fertilisation. At maximum growing-season temperatures of 23−31°C, yields increased with increasing temperature with no added fertiliser, were unchanged with the application of 40 kg N/ha, and decreased with increasing temperatures with application of 80 kg/ha N. The changes in yield with temperature and N supply were associated with N uptake by the maize, which showed the same interaction with maximum temperature and N added. SOC acted as a source of N, so that changes in yield induced by temperature and N were similar whether the N was from an organic or an inorganic source. Increasing the duration of the vegetative phase resulted in lower or no change in yields at all sites. We conclude that global warming will increase the yield for low-input smallholder farmers growing maize at maximum growing-season temperatures <31°C, but that micro-dosing with N will increase yields at all locations with mean maximum temperatures of 20−35°C.

Spatial-typological heterogeneity and environmental organization of the summer population of birds in the Middle Region of Northern Eurasia

The area under study covered the West Siberian Plain from the Urals to the Yenisei River and the same band to the southern borders of the former Soviet Union in 1991, including a part of the Altai-Sayan mountain country, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and the whole of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. The results of ornithogeographic surveys carried out on routes with a length of 63000 km in 3140 habitats from May 16 to July 31 in the period from 1936 to 2013 were analyzed for this territory. More than 110 specialists took part in the study. The collected data were averaged according to the contours of natural-geographical maps. The subsequent cluster analysis revealed the presence of three systems (series) of bird communities in undeveloped and developed lands, as well as in water and riparian areas. Eight types of communities were distinguished within the first system: 1—tundra type; 2—forest-tundra type; 3—forest type; 4 and 5—West Siberian meadow-steppe and semidesert-steppe types; 6 and 7—Middle Asian northern desert-steppe and southern desert types; 8—high-mountain type. The borders of their distribution do not coincide with the zonal borders. Seven and six types of communities were distinguished in the second and third systems, respectively. A part of them was divided into 29 subtypes in total. The revealed heterogeneity of bird communities is largely determined by 12 environmental factors. The greatest correlation was detected for forestation, buildup, and watering. The multiple correlation of the bird population variability with all the identified environmental factors amounted to about 54 ± 1% of variance in the similarity matrix, which approximately corresponds to the correlation coefficient of 0.74.

Forest cover changes in Bhutan: Revisiting the forest transition

Reforestation is observed in several tropical countries, mostly in marginal lands including mountain environments. Bhutan, a landlocked and mountainous country characterized by a long tradition of environmental preservation, is considered as one of the few tropical countries which has experienced a recent forest transition, i.e., a shift from net loss to net increase of forest cover. However, doubts persist regarding the contemporary evolution of forest cover in Bhutan as two recent studies reported opposite trends. The objective of this study was to assess whether a forest transition did indeed recently take place in Bhutan. We used topographically corrected Landsat images from 1990, 2001/2002, and 2011 to detect and quantify forest cover change trajectories over Bhutan. Results of the land cover classifications confirmed that forest cover in Bhutan remained very stable, with a forested area covering more than 60% of the country. For both time periods, gross and net forest cover changes were remarkably small. A trend reversal occurred as a net forest loss of 91 km2 during the 1990s was followed by a net forest gain of 52 km2 during the following decade. This small transition resulted from both an increase in rates of forest gain and a decrease in rates of forest loss, mostly affecting the broadleaf forest ecosystem of southern low-elevation districts. Northern districts covered by coniferous forests did not contribute to the forest transition. A spatially explicit comparison of our forest cover change maps with two previous studies highlighted the importance of a robust validation of change detection results and of a topographic correction of remote sensing images in rugged environments, as performed in this study. These recent forest cover changes can be explained by socio-economic and political changes associated with the opening of the country to trade, which induced a gradual transition from subsistence shifting cultivation to market-oriented agriculture. This study confirmed that the high forest cover of Bhutan was maintained since 1990, with a slight increase during the 2000s.

Book Review: Global Journalism Practice and New Media Performance, by Y. Kalyango Jr. and David H. Mould (Eds.).

Y. Kalyango Jr. and David H. Mould (Eds.). Global Journalism Practice and New Media Performance. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014. 262 pp.Understanding journalism is traditionally practiced in United States and in certain counties may not be novel topic today for journalism and mass communication educators. However, traditional journalism is practiced in environment where both separately or jointly perform their due function has become an intriguing issue in recent years. This is vital issue in countries, such as Armenia, El Salvador, Guyana, Kyrgyzstan, Suriname, and Yemen, which are not conventionally or frequently seen in our field's literature.This volume, edited by Kalyango and Mould, professors at Ohio University, well addresses role of journalism practice and education in both new and traditional media amid economic and cultural contexts (fourth cover) in 16 or regions-China, Colombia, Ghana, India, Jordan, Palestine, Russia, Taiwan, Turkey, United States, and abovementioned. From global perspective, editors and chapter contributors aim to elaborate key debates concern core journalistic values: to remain relevant as main arbiter of reliable, accurate, independent sources, and verified news and in ecosystem and to tackle challenge facing both basic journalistic principles (p. 1) and the journalistic obligation to enable platforms as forum for public debates, criticism, and compromise (p. 1).Chapters are grouped into three sections-journalism practice (in United States), versus traditional media, and journalism practice and performance (outside of United States). Section I begins with global educators' evaluation of U.S. journalism practice concerning a broader question-How will we know what [colleagues in foreign countries] think about U.S. journalism and it compares with journalism they have taught and practiced in their own countries (p. ix). The core journalistic values and professional model upheld in U.S. system may not be universally applied according to focus group where participants provided an outsider's view. This chapter serves as starting point, as editors stated, for demonstration of how traditional values in practice of professional journalism in other parts of world (p. 4) can be localized and interpreted.The eight case studies included in Section II are organized and fleshed out by competition and co-existence of traditional and as sources of information, as well as their roles shaped by political, economic, cultural, and/or societal conditions. Concerning several nations barely seen in research, for example, Suren Deheryan provides latest information about development of telecommunication infrastructure, and analyzes increase in Internet access in Armenia. Although still facing challenges in establishing credibility, online and social networking have influenced practice of traditional news and news agencies, and more importantly, brought changes to government, electoral processes, and e-commerce in this mountainous country. …

GIS Methods and Multi-Temporal Remote Sensing Data for Improved Landslide Hazard Mapping in Southern Kyrgyzstan.

In Southern Kyrgyzstan, large landslides frequently occur with a high potential for endangering human lives and infrastructure. Landslides are especially concentrated along the eastern rim of the Fergana basin, which represents an important human living space in this mountainous country. The relationships between landslide occurrence and predisposing and triggering factors have not been completely understood yet. An objective and comprehensive landslide inventory is a prerequisite for these analyses. The paper shows how the use of multi-temporal remote sensing data combined with landslide information from other sources allows to create a multi-temporal landslide inventory for the data-scarce study area in Southern Kyrgyzstan. The application of GIS methods enables an efficient data integration and access as well as automated derivation of landslide attributes.

Análisis estadístico de la base de datos climatológica del parámetro humedad relativa de Honduras

Honduras es un país con un territorio predominantemente montañoso, de clima cálido y húmedo, cuya economía se basa en gran parte en la producción agrícola, rubro cuyo rendimiento puede verse influenciado por diferentes factores climáticos, tales como la humedad relativa.La humedad relativa es un parámetro meteorológico que en Honduras es monitoreado por aproximadamente un 17 % del total de estaciones meteorológicas con que se cuenta el país. Desafortunadamente, esta cobertura no es tan extensa como se esperaría; además, gran parte de la información que se brinda presenta vacíos importantes. En consecuencia, si se quiere trabajar de manera más eficiente no solo en el campo de la agricultura, sino también en las áreas de ingeniería, generación de energía, etc., es necesario crear una plataforma de datos históricos de humedad relativa que sea confiable.La presente investigación tiene como objetivo la recopilación ordenada y sistemática de la mayor cantidad de información histórica posible sobre el parámetro de humedad relativa, de modo que esta pueda ser analizada y completada de manera confiable. Para el desarrollo de la investigación se ha recolectado información de alrededor de 50 estaciones, a cuyos datos se les realizó una serie de análisis estadísticos y de continuidad. Estas estaciones se rellenaron mediante la utilización de un programa creado por la Cooperación Española, en 2002, en conjunto con la SERNA. El producto final de este estudio es una base de datos de humedad relativa continua, homogénea y aleatoria de este parámetro en Honduras.Revista Ciencia y Tecnología, N° 15, diciembre 2014: 129-146

Effect of land use change and slope position on soil organic carbon in Kitabi Watershed Rwanda

Soil organic carbon (SOC) is widely used as a proxy for soil health and soil fertility. Land use change(LUC) has been implicated as one of the factors leading to the loss of SOC and increased release of green house gases (GHGs) to the atmosphere hence contributing to global climate change (GCC). Rwanda is a mountainous country and has faced a challenge of land use inter-conversions between forests, perennial crops and annual crops over the years. The impact of LUC on SOC stocks is poorly documented. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of LUC and slope positions on SOC stocks in Kitabi watershed. Lands at TM-5 images of 2008 and 1986 were used to make a land use change map using Maximum Likelihood Classification (MLC) algorithm in Erdas. Slope positions were derived from the DEM using Topographic Position Index (TPI) tool and the output raster was overlaid with the LUC map to identify sample strata. Soil samples were obtained using stratified top sequential random sampling from annual crops, community tea and factory tea. A total of 134 soil samples were taken from the three LU categories along each of the three slope positions: upslope, middle slope and down slope. Soil sampling was done at two depths 0-20 cm and 20-50 cm in each land use category using a soil auger. To make a composite soil mixture, five samples were taken from 10 m x 10 m plots in each land use category.SOC laboratory analysis was done using Loss on ignition (LOI). One-Way ANOVA and Games Howell tests were used to analyze the data. Results indicate that LU types significantly affect SOC stocks (p < 0.001) while slope position does not (p =.491). The interaction of LU and slope position has no significant effect on SOC stocks across the three land use types (p = .061). Good management practices in community tea and soil erosion control measures in annual crops are recommended.