Mountainous Country Research Articles

Epidemiology of Helicobacter pylori infection in asymptomatic schoolchildren in Bhutan.

Bhutan is a small mountainous country between Tibet and India with relatively homogenous population. According to the World Health Organization, gastric cancer is the most frequent cause of cancer death in Bhutan. This study examined the prevalence of Helicobacter pylori among children in Bhutan with emphasis on water source and living conditions. A cross-sectional sero-epidemiologic study was conducted among schoolchildren who attended public schools in Thimphu, Bhutan. Between 2015 and 2016, blood samples from schoolchildren were collected after obtaining an informed consent from the school management and the children's parents. Demographic information, parents' education, family size living in the same household, and aspects of household environment including type of latrines, boiling drinking water were collected. All serum samples were tested for H.pylori immunoglobulin G (IgG) by commercial ELISA kits. There were 327 children between 4 and 19years of age participated, 44% boys, mean age=13.6±3years. The overall prevalence of H. pylori was 66% with no difference between boys and girls (66 vs 64%, respectively), P=.42. H. pylori prevalence was 75% among both 4-7 and 15-19years and not statically different from that of the 8-10 or 11-14 age groups (59% and 63%, respectively), P=.1. H. pylori prevalence was inversely correlated with the level of mother's education (70% vs 55%) for those without and with a college education, respectively (OR=2.3; 95%CI=0.9-1.7), P=.08. The total number of people living in the same household did not correlate with H. pylori sero-prevalence, but households had less than 3 children had lower prevalence than those with 3 or more children (62% vs 71%, respectively OR=1.7, 95% CI=[1.0-2.6], P=.05). H. pylori infection is prevalent among all age group children in Bhutan. The results suggest that transmission of H. pylori is related to personal care practices that directly correlate with the mothers' education and crowded living condition with children. Our results are important to developing prevention strategies for gastric cancer in Bhutan.

Phytocoenotic biodiversity of the planned national nature park ‘Foothills of Altai’

The planned national nature park is situated in the northern part of the Altai foothills within the Belokurihinskiy granite massif. The flora includes 11 species of vascular plants listed in the Red Books of the Russian Federation (2008) and the Altai Territory (2006). Two species are endemics of Altai-Sayan mountainous country: Silene turgida and Dentaria sibirica. More than half of the territory (52.8%) is covered with forests. The fir taiga with the abundance of relict forms is the most extensive in terms of the area. Thus, the territory of the nature park features the following vegetation types: forests (small-leaved forests and conifer forests), meadows (steppe meadows, real (present), lowland meadows), meadow steppes, brakes, rocky vegetation, water vegetation and anthropogenic vegetation.

The Great East Japan Earthquake: Analyses of Disaster Impacts on Health Care Clinics.

Local health facilities play a critical role in mitigating the deterioration of health after catastrophic disasters. However, limited information is available on clinic damage. Therefore, the National Institute of Public Health conducted surveillance on clinic damage after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake (GEJE) to identify risk factors. A cross-sectional study using a paper-based questionnaire was conducted that targeted 728 clinics located in coastal areas in the 3 prefectures most affected by the GEJE. The risk of building damage was inversely correlated with distance from the coast, whereas the risk of ceasing operations was significantly correlated with building damage and some specialties of clinics, namely, internal medicine and pediatrics.DiscussionIn mountainous countries like Japan, clinics often need to be built in coastal areas, where the majority of residents live. This surveillance revealed that clinics built in readily accessible locations and that provide care with high needs are more likely to get damaged by tsunamis. As clinics are often the frontline health facilities in disaster settings, local disaster plans need to include plans to reinforce disaster preparedness among clinics. For effective planning and resource allocation, nationwide hazard vulnerability analysis using a global standard will be helpful. (Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2018; 12: 291-295).

Notes from the Field: Preliminary Results After Implementation of a Universal Treatment Program (Test and Start) for Persons Living with HIV Infection - Lesotho, October 2015-February 2017.

Lesotho, a small, mountainous country completely surrounded by the Republic of South Africa, has a population of approximately 2 million persons with an estimated gross national income of $1,280 per capita; 73% of the population resides in rural areas (1). Lesotho has a generalized human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) epidemic (2). In 2014, the prevalence of HIV infection among persons aged 15-49 years was 24.6%, with an incidence of 1.9 new infections per 100 person-years of exposure (3). As the leading cause of premature death, HIV/AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) has contributed to Lesotho's reporting the shortest life expectancy at birth among 195 countries and territories (4). In 2015, antiretroviral therapy (ART) coverage among HIV-positive persons in Lesotho was estimated to be 42% (5). In April 2016, Lesotho became the first country in sub-Saharan Africa to adopt the World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations for universal initiation of antiretroviral therapy for all HIV-positive persons, regardless of CD4 count (known as the "Test and Start" program or approach), with nationwide implementation occurring in June 2016 (6,7). Before implementation of Test and Start, many persons living with HIV infection in Lesotho were not eligible to initiate treatment until their CD4 count was <500 cells/mm3.

Challenges in Estimating Quantitative Precipitation Estimation (QPE) Using Weather Radar Observation Over the Mountainous Country of Nepal

South Asian country Nepal characterizes a complex mountain range in this world. The country’s population density is increasing along with rapid growth of population especially over mountainous cities, southern hills and the Terai. On the other hand, a number of fatal natural calamities, such as flash flooding and landslides raised by clutter intensive rainfall, have been increasing since the last decade. To deal with such water hydro meteorological disasters, accurate information on spatial and temporal variation of rainfall distribution is very important. In Nepal, the amount of rainfall has been obtained from limited rain gauge networks, which may leads to many errors in making a Quantitative Precipitation Estimation (QPE). Weather radar observations have recently been highlighted as an alternative option for estimating the spatial and temporal distribution of precipitation across specified time intervals. However, estimating rainfall from radar observation has its own challenges, especially over a mountainous country like Nepal.Another mountainous country Japan is well known for using weather radar observation to make QPE product. Different types of weather radar have been used to record, monitor and forecast precipitation in Japan for both operational and research purposes. A high level research work has also been done on this field. The high spatial and temporal (250-m and 1-min) QPE product obtained from the radar observation is available for the public. It shows good harmony with ground data in the flat and mountain areas of Japan. Though Nepal and Japan are located in different regions, both countries represent complex mountain regions and have been facing natural disaster caused by extreme rainfall. In Nepal, weather radar observation for estimating precipitation amounts has not started on an operational basis till date. Hence, sharing knowledge and skills from Japan’s research on weather radar observation would play a key role to achieve the radar based QPE product in Nepal. Therefore, we discuss about the challenge in obtaining QPE product, considering an example of the progress of weather radar system in Japan. It is believed that any discussion on it will be a reference for weather radar deployment and its QPE product in Nepal in coming days. HYDRO Nepal JournalJournal of Water Energy and EnvironmentIssue: 21, July, 2017Page: 50-59Upload Date: July 18, 2017

Tourism development and economic and socio-cultural consequences in Everest Region

Being a mountainous country, Nepal is one of the destinations of tourist. Everest Region is one of the major destination trekking and mountaineering tourism and ranks second after Annapurna Region in term of number of tourists visiting different regions of Nepal. The number of tourist visiting this region increased from only 1406 in 1971/72 to 37124 in 2014. Such a growth of tourism has several socio-economic and cultural consequences. This paper discusses the consequences of tourism in Everest Region. Informations were collected along the trekking routes from Lukla to Dinboche through focus group discussion, key informant interview and tourism business survey. The results indicate that the number of hotels and lodges in many settlements along the trekking route has increased tremendously. The main base of economic life of Sherpa community has been changed from agro-pastoralism to tourism based business. The level of employment and income of local people has improved. However, tourism has undermined Sherpa culture by introducing new values and lifestyles influencing from westerners, eroded the central role of religion and traditional value in Sherpa community. For the younger generation the tourist and their norms of behavior and patterns of consumption can be seductive. This is the symptom of losing of cultural value of Sherpa community and world identity of Sherpa in the future.The Geographical Journal of Nepal Vol. 10: 89-104, 2017

Floristic composition and vegetation: Environmental relationships of Wadi Fatimah, Mecca, Saudi Arabia

ABSTRACTThe present study aimed to determine floristic composition, the structure of the vegetation, and species distribution at 16 sample plots in Wadi Fatimah, Mecca, Saudi Arabia, highlighting the ecological factors that affect species distribution. The study revealed 100 plant species belonging to 34 families. Fabaceae and Poaceae were the dominant families, and chamaephytes and therophytes were predominant life forms, which demonstrate a typical desert life-form spectrum. Altitude showed a highly significant association with species frequency distribution. The highest species richness value of 23 species per plot was recorded in the coastal plain (Vegetation groups II & III). The lowest species richness value of 9 species per plot was recorded in the littoral salt marsh (Vegetation group I). Chorological analysis exhibited the Saharao-Arabian–Sudano-Zambezian chorotypes, 47% of the studied species were bi-regional. Using TWINSPAN, DCA, and CCA multivariate analysis, four major vegetation groups were classified into three main ecosystems (I) Halopeplis perfoliata, Suaeda fruticosa, Acacia tortilis, and Suaeda fruticosa, representing the littoral salt marsh; (II) Rhazya stricta and Haloxylon salicornicum, characterized by the coastal plain; and (III) Senna italica, Glinus lotoides, and Tribulus macropterus were the leading groups in the inland mountainous country. The CCA ordination showed that the separation of Vegetation group III along the axis was affected by Mg, K, and P concentration, and VG IV was significantly associated with silt, clay, and fine sand content. Furthermore, the Vegetation group I was significantly correlated with Na and Ca concentration, and VG II group was significantly correlated with heavy metal concentrations of elements as Fe, Pb, Zn, Ni, and Cu.

Rock outcrops in the southeastern part of the West Siberian plain as the northern limit of distribution and refuge of rare moss species

Foothill plains along the northwest periphery of Altai–Sayan Mountain Country are the northern limit of stony substrates in the West Siberian longitudinal sector. Rock outcrops in this area are rare; their areas usually do not exceed few dozens of square meters. Despite small areas, the rocky outcrops keep nearly half of the foothill moss flora. 119 moss species were recorded in the rocky habitat; 26 of them are rare both in Western Siberia and in its mountain ringing. An annotated list of species is given. Features of species distribution in the longitudinal sector of West Siberia are discussed.

Dollar Diplomacy by Force: Nation-Building and Resistance in the Dominican Republic

Dollar Diplomacy by Force: Nation-Building and Resistance in the Dominican Republic

Validación de la precipitación estimada por modelos climáticos acoplados del proyecto de intercomparación CMIP5 en Colombia

La predicción de los posibles cambios en la precipitación como resultado del cambio climático global, la deforestación y otras perturbaciones antrópicas, es un problema práctico y científico de gran complejidad y enormes consecuencias. La estrategia tradicional ha sido recurrir a modelos climáticos globales acoplados de océano y atmósfera. Sin embargo, aunque tales modelos han significado avances importantes en la representación del clima pasado y presente, no están exentos de dificultades, especialmente en lo concerniente a la estimación de la precipitación en un país montañoso y tropical como Colombia. Para avanzar en el conocimiento de la confiabilidad de tales predicciones se evaluó la precipitación histórica en algunos modelos del proyecto de intercomparación de modelos acoplados (CMIP5) mediante la comparación sistemática de dicha precipitación con la precipitación observada tomada de los registros de la base de datos del modelo hidrológico nacional propuesto por Hurtado (2009). Se evaluaron diferentes medidas de error, entre ellas, las del error medio absoluto, la raíz del error medio cuadrático, el índice de concordancia, el error sistemático (bias), y los coeficientes de correlación y de determinación. Los resultados de la evaluación estacional y regional cuestionan la credibilidad de las predicciones de la precipitación de los modelos de circulación general (MCG) para Colombia, lo cual llama a la reflexión sobre su uso y resalta la importancia de profundizar en la investigación sobre el tema, en aras de contribuir a la adopción de las decisiones pertinentes. Por último, debe hacerse énfasis en la necesidad de un programa nacional de investigación para responder a la acuciante pregunta del impacto del cambio climático sobre la precipitación en Colombia. © 2017. Acad. Colomb. Cienc. Ex. Fis. Nat.

네팔에서의 인공습지 적용: 최근 개발 및 향후 고려사항

네팔은 중국과 인도 사이에 위치한 남부 아시아의 내륙국가로 폐수관리는 도시지역에서 가장 중요한 문제 중 하나이다. 네팔의 폐수처리 시스템은 비싼 운영비, 불연속적인 전력 공급, 유지관리 및 기술인력의 부족으로 인해 조성과 운영이 어렵다. 이러한 이유로 인공습지는 폐수처리시설의 대안기술로써 다양한 지역에 적용되고 있다. 일반적으로 인공습지 기술의 효율 지속 가능성은 적절한 운영과 유지관리 및 적극적인 지역사회 참여에 의존한다. 따라서 본 연구에서는 26개의 인공습지에서의 제거 효율, 방류수질, 네팔 수질기준, 운영 및 유지관리 활동 등을 조사하고 문제점을 분석하여 관리방안 등을 도출하였다. 오염물질당 제거효율은 ka-1의 인공습지가 가장 높은 것으로 나타났으며, B-1, L-3, Ka-5, k-1 순으로 높은 것으로 나타났다. 네팔의 인공습지 조성기술은 최근 20년간 기술개발 없이 전통적 방식에 의존해온 결과 비효율적인 성능으로 인해 많은 습지가 가동이 중단되거나 폐쇄되는 것으로 나타났다. 또한 기술개발의 부족, 자연재해, 대중의 인공습지에 대한 낮은 인식 및 예산 부족 등은 인공습지의 지속적인 개발을 저해하고 있는 것으로 조사되었지만, 인공습지는 네팔 도시지역의 폐수문제에 대한 해결방안으로 고려되고 있다. Nepal is a landlocked mountainous country in South Asia, located between China to the north and India to the south, east, and west. As such, wastewater management has become one of the most significant problems in urban area of Nepal. In Nepal, the centralized wastewater treatment systems were dysfunctional due to high cost of operation, discontinuous power supply, lack of proper maintenance and proper technical workforce to address the issues. As such, constructed wetlands (CW) were applied to treat various secondary wastewater as alternative to wastewater treatment facilities. Generally, efficiency and sustainability of CW technology depends on proper operation and maintenance and active community involvement. This study summarizes information about 26 CW in Nepal. Specifically, factors including data banking, removal efficiency, quality of discharged water, compliance to water quality standard of Nepal and operation and maintenance were investigated. Considering removal efficiency per pollutant, Ka-1 achieved the greatest reduction for most pollutant followed by B-1, L-3, Ka-5 and K-1. Nepal has practiced CW technology for more than 2 decades but currently, development of technology was interrupted by the inefficient performance of existing facilities. Public awareness about the technology, natural disaster, unavailability of specified substrate materials, lack of fund for further research and experiments has hindered the expansion of technology. In spite of these concerns, CW was still proven as an alternative solution to the present wastewater problems in urban areas of Nepal.

Geographical features and development regularities of rural areas and settlements distribution in mountain countries

Abstract River basins and valleys surrounded by dividing mountainous ranges are considered to be the basis for distribution of population and settlements in mountainous countries. In these areas physical-geographical factors are interrelated and interconnected, having a direct influence on distribution of population and settlements. Mountainous relief is preventing the consolidation of territory and development of fundamental processes of resettlement. For these areas basins and river valley-types of settlement systems are the most typical. As the economic activities of settlements are closely related to natural environment, the influence of natural environment on rural areas and settlements is bigger than on urban settlements: particularly, in mountainous areas with a great diversity of natural conditions. On the basis of analysis and generalization of the research outcomes of the author and different other researchers, some geographical features and development regularities of rural areas and settlements distribution in mountainous countries are worked out.

Modelos de Localización para Cadenas Agroalimentarias Perecederas: una Revisión al Estado del Arte

Context: The problem of locating facilities in supply chains of perishable agricultural products has not been widely addressed, however, this issue in recent years has taken great interest because of concerns about the consumption of fresh and healthy food, important aspect in countries with fruits food producer potential. Method: A systematic review of the state of the art on facility location problems for perishable agricultural products was conducted. The following databases were searched: Science Direct, IEEE Xplore, SpringerLink, JSTOR, Scopus and Google Scholar. From an initial collection of 135 papers obtained with a generic search query for food location, 31 were finally selected for review focusing on food supply chain location model, within a publication date ranging from 2004 to 2015. Results: Based on the review, a typology of variables considered and not considered in models pertinent to conditions relevant to countries such as Colombia, is proposed. Objective functions commonly used, specific restrictions for Food Supply Chain (FSC) and logistical drivers most commonly considered in these models were also identified. Future research, regarding variables to be included in FSC models location for perishables in context of mountainous countries were identified.Conclusions: Strategic decisions such as the location of facilities are of great importance for the design of the fresh food supply chain and its network, given the perishability. However, the issue has been poorly evaluated especially due to the difficulty of modeling and the large number of variables to consider in this type of chain. Models that include the perishability, losses and stochastic behavior of some variables are required. Colombia can benefit from more research in location models of perishable food, particularly the impact on perishability due to its particular conditions of great variety of climates, mountainous landscapes along with a limited transport and road infrastructure.

Rising Precipitation Extremes across Nepal

As a mountainous country, Nepal is most susceptible to precipitation extremes and related hazards, including severe floods, landslides and droughts that cause huge losses of life and property, impact the Himalayan environment, and hinder the socioeconomic development of the country. Given that the countrywide assessment of such extremes is still lacking, we present a comprehensive picture of prevailing precipitation extremes observed across Nepal. First, we present the spatial distribution of daily extreme precipitation indices as defined by the Expert Team on Climate Change Detection, Monitoring and Indices (ETCCDMI) from 210 stations over the period of 1981–2010. Then, we analyze the temporal changes in the computed extremes from 76 stations, featuring long-term continuous records for the period of 1970–2012, by applying a non-parametric Mann−Kendall test to identify the existence of a trend and Sen’s slope method to calculate the true magnitude of this trend. Further, the local trends in precipitation extremes have been tested for their field significance over the distinct physio-geographical regions of Nepal, such as the lowlands, middle mountains and hills and high mountains in the west (WL, WM and WH, respectively), and likewise, in central (CL, CM and CH) and eastern (EL, EM and EH) Nepal. Our results suggest that the spatial patterns of high-intensity precipitation extremes are quite different to that of annual or monsoonal precipitation. Lowlands (Terai and Siwaliks) that feature relatively low precipitation and less wet days (rainy days) are exposed to high-intensity precipitation extremes. Our trend analysis suggests that the pre-monsoonal precipitation is significantly increasing over the lowlands and CH, while monsoonal precipitation is increasing in WM and CH and decreasing in CM, CL and EL. On the other hand, post-monsoonal precipitation is significantly decreasing across all of Nepal while winter precipitation is decreasing only over the WM region. Both high-intensity precipitation extremes and annual precipitation trends feature east−west contrast, suggesting significant increase over the WM and CH region but decrease over the EM and CM regions. Further, a significant positive trend in the number of consecutive dry days but significant negative trend in the number of wet (rainy) days are observed over the whole of Nepal, implying the prolongation of the dry spell across the country. Overall, the intensification of different precipitation indices over distinct parts of the country indicates region-specific risks of floods, landslides and droughts. The presented findings, in combination with population and environmental pressures, can support in devising the adequate region-specific adaptation strategies for different sectors and in improving the livelihood of the rural communities in Nepal.

Agro-environmental Transitions in African Mountains: Shifting Socio-spatial Practices Amid State-Led Commercialization in Rwanda

Agricultural commercialization has been slow to take hold in mountain regions throughout the world. It has been particularly limited by challenges of mechanization, transportation access, and governance. Efforts at green-revolution style development have met with persistent failures in highland sub-Saharan Africa, where agricultural systems are often finely tuned to complex and dynamic social–ecological contexts. In Rwanda, a mountainous country in east central Africa, development efforts have long aimed to transition away from largely subsistence-based production that relies on high labor input toward commercial farming systems that are rooted in capital investment for marketable goods. Since 2005, Rwanda's land policy has become increasingly ambitious, aiming to reduce the 85 percent of households involved in agriculture to 50 percent by the year 2020. The country's Crop Intensification Program (CIP) compels farmers to consolidate land and cultivate government-selected crops. Although state assessments have touted the productivity gains created through the CIP, others speculate that households could be losing access to crucial resources. Research from both sides, however, has focused squarely on the CIP's immediate successes and failures without considering how households are responding to the program within the context of the complex and variable mountain environment. Drawing from political ecology and mountain geography, this article describes recent state-led agricultural commercialization in Rwanda as a partial and contested process. By analyzing complex land-use and livelihood changes, it fills an important conceptual and empirical research gap in understanding the environmental and social dynamics of the agrarian transitions of the highlands of Africa.

Палеоботанические данные по истории флоры Алтайской горной страны и близлежащих территорий

В числе ископаемых флор «тургайского типа» особняком стоит флора Южного (Казахстанского) Алтая – флора Бухтармы (или Коктерека), впервые описанная в 1887 г. И. Ф. Шмальгаузеном. Местонахождение этой богатой флоры располагается в верхнем течении реки Бухтармы близ поселка Чингистай на высоте около 1000 м над ур. м. Флороносный слой пород – это алевритовые глины. Во флоре Бухтармы известно, не считая мхов и печеночников, 66 видов высших споровых, голосеменных и цветковых растений. Основу определённых видов составляют хвойные и листопадные древесные (и, видимо, кустарниковые) типы. Богатство хвойных, среди которых преобладает Metasequoiajaponica, – важнейшая черта флоры Бухтармы. Отмеченное разнообразие хвойных и листопадных деревьев, сочетание типов экзотических и довольно близких к современным азиатским – очень важная черта флоры Бухтармы. Анализ и сравнение флоры Бухтармы с другими ископаемыми флорами (Ашутаса, флорами на территории Алтая, Западной Сибири, Лагерного сада) показывает исключительно ярко различия этих флор. В то же время аналоги бухтарминской флоры можно найти в миоценовых флорах Восточной Азии (в Японских флорах, флорах Южного Приморья и Приамурья), что позволяет оценить флору Бухтармы как нижне-среднемиоценовую (возраст её, видимо, около 14 млн лет). Это своеобразное производное тургайских флор в горных условиях более теплого угла Алтайской горной страны, обогащенное автохтонно развившимися эндемиками.

Палиноморфологические особенности таксонов рода Geranium (Geraniaceae) Алтайской горной страны

Pollen grains of 22 taxa from 7 sections and 2 subgenera of the genus Geranium from the territory of the Altai Mountain Country and 9 other species of the genus growing outside the study area were examined with the help of scanning electron microscope. The pollen of 10 taxa was studied for the first time. The pollen grains of all studied Geranium taxa are radially symmetric, isopolar, simple, 3-(rarely 4)-groove-ore, oblate-spheroidal or round-ellipsoidal, with pole three-(rarely four-)lobed, with equator almost round. It is shown that common character for all investigated Geranium taxa is clavate sculpture of the first row of the exine. For the first time for the genus Geranium the species G. regelii with 4-lobed, 4-groove-ore pollen grains was identified. It is shown that the features of pollen grains have a value for the taxonomy of Geranium species . Descent groups in sections Geranium and Recurvata according the pollen grains features were revealed. 3 descent groups (groups of G. sylvaticum, G. albiflorum, G. pseudosibiricum) are in the section Geranium, 2 descent groups (groups of G. pratense and G. collinum) are in the section Recurvata. Studied species of the genus Geranium differ on a set of features: the length of polar axis and equatorial diameter, the sculpture of the exine, size, shape and surface of heads, ornamentation of the surface of pollen grains. The size of pollen grains has sectional value and correlate with the size of the corolla: the pollen grains of species in section Recurvata have the largest sizes; the pollen grains of species in the section Batrachioides have the smallest size. Peculiarities of the internal reticle of the exine and the ornamentation of the surface of the pollen grains have subsectional value. The surface sculpture of the clavate heads can be a feature for division of species

Enabling Water-Energy–Food Nexus: A New Approach for Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security in Mountainous Landlocked Countries

Majority of landlocked mountainous countries are poorly ranked in Human Development Index (HDI), mostly due to poor per capita agriculture production, increasing population, unemployment, expensive and delayed transportation including several other factors. Generally, economy of such countries substantially relies on subsistence agriculture, tourism, hydropower and largely on remittance etc. Recently, it has been argued that to utilize scarce suitable land efficiently for food production, poor inland transport, hydropower, irrigation, drinking water in integration with other developmental infrastructures, an overarching policy linking water - energy – food nexus within a country for combating water, energy and food security would be most relevant. Thus, in present paper it has been opined that promotion of such linkage via nexus approach is the key to sustainable development of landlocked mountainous countries. Major land mass in mountainous countries like Nepal remains unsuitable for agriculture, road and other infrastructure profoundly imposing food, nutrition and energy security. However, large pristine snowy mountains function as wildlife sanctuaries, pastures, watershed, recharge areas for regional and global water, food and energy security. In return, landlocked mountainous countries are offered certain international leverages. For more judicious trade off, it is recommended that specific countries aerial coverage of mountains would be more appropriate basis for such leverages. Moreover, for sustainability of mountainous countries an integrated approach enabling water - energy – food nexus via watershed-hydropower-irrigation-aquaculture-agriculture-integrated linking policy model is proposed. This model would enable protection of watershed for pico, micro, and mega hydro power plants and tail waters to be used for aquaculture or irrigation or drinking water purposes for food and nutrition security.

THE FAUNA OF CADDISFLIES (TRICHOPTERA: INSECTA) OF THE ULBA RIVER BASIN (SOUTH-WESTERN ALTAI)

The rivers of South-West Altai are poorly-studied by entomologists. To analyze the fauna composition and spatial distribution of caddisflies in watercourses of the Ulba river basin (South-Western Altai), the hydrobiological studies in 11 streams of the basin were performed in 2002-2013. The river basin is distinguished by high species richness of caddisflies. Here, 64 species of caddisflies from 38 genera and 19 families that is 48% of the species and 67% of the genera found in Kazakhstan are present. In the Ulba caddisflies fauna, the Transpalaearctic species (41%) dominate, a large quantity (33%) falls on Western Palaearctic ones. East Palaearctic species form 20% of the fauna, while the Altai and Siberia species – 6%. It is shown that despite the prevalence of widely distributed Transpalaearctic elements, the caddisflies fauna of South-Western Altai is hardly similar to that of the Altai-Sayan Mountain Country. Geographically approximate regions of Altai show the best similarity. The analysis of similarity of caddisflies species lists for some streams of South-Western Altai is evidence of a decisive role of abiotic factors of river biocenoses in the Trichoptera fauna formation. The suggestion has been made that ecological factors are critical in spatial distribution of caddisflies in the rivers of South-Western Altai. It is noted that composition and community structure of caddisflies depend on the level of anthropogenic transformation of rivers. The species richness of caddisflies and their share in total biomass of zoobenthos from river sites located below discharge points of polluted waters are reduced. The revealed features of caddisflies communities transformation in the impact zone call for modification of biotic indices used for assessing ecological state of rivers in the region.

Ecological-taxonomic analysis of the petrophyte flora of Ikhrek (Rutulsky district) surroundings of Republic of Dagestan

The study of petrophytes, as a peculiar group of plants, is important for understanding the history of the flora and nature in general. Their ecological characteristics, taxonomic composition, geographic and genetic relationships and other characteristics carry information about the stages of development of the mountain country and its flora. Rutulsky district is a part of Highland Dagestan and borders on the Republic of Azerbaijan in the South, Akhtynsky and Kurakhsky districts in the East, Tlyaratinsky and Charodinsky districts in the North-West, Kulinsky, Agulsky and Laksky districts of the Republic of Dagestan in the North. The relief of Highland Dagestan, which is the area of our research, is characterized by a large slope, stony and rocky mountains. The following paper contains taxonomic, biomorphic, ecological analyses of petrophyte complexes of the studied area and an analysis of endemism and relict flora of petrophytic complexes. Herbarium material has helped to find the dominant family, genera and species of petrophyte complexes of the area. Biomorphic and environmental groups of petrophyte complexes have been studied. Confinement of petrophytes to different environmental conditions has been established. Endemic, relict and protected species of petrophyte complexes have been identified.